Questioning Research Summary - Revision history

Bjoern at 18:30, 6 February 2015

2015-02-06T18:30:49Z

Bjoern at 18:00, 6 February 2015

2015-02-06T18:00:54Z

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	{{ORBITreading}}~~[[Category:Reading]]~~		<noinclude>{{ORBITreading}}</noinclude>
	<section begin=Body/>		<section begin=Body/>
	=Summary of research=		=Summary of research=
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	* What is effective questioning?		* What is effective questioning?
	* How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?		* How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?
	* How do questions develop ~~pupils’~~ cognitive abilities?		* How do questions develop pupilsâ cognitive abilities?

	<section begin=What/>		<section begin=What/>
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	* The classroom climate is one where pupils feel secure enough to take risks, be tentative and make mistakes.		* The classroom climate is one where pupils feel secure enough to take risks, be tentative and make mistakes.

	The research emphasises the importance of using open, higher-level questions to develop ~~pupils’~~ higher-order thinking skills. Clearly there needs to be a balance between open and closed questions, depending on the topic and objectives for the lesson. A closed question, such as ~~‘What~~ is the next number in the sequence?’, can be extended by a follow-up question, such as ~~‘How~~ did you work that out?’		The research emphasises the importance of using open, higher-level questions to develop pupilsâ higher-order thinking skills. Clearly there needs to be a balance between open and closed questions, depending on the topic and objectives for the lesson. A closed question, such as âWhat is the next number in the sequence?â, can be extended by a follow-up question, such as âHow did you work that out?â

	Overall, the research shows that effective teachers use a greater number of higher- order questions and open questions than less effective teachers. However, the research also demonstrates that most of the questions asked by both effective and less effective teachers are lower order and closed. It is estimated that ~~70–80~~ per cent of all learning-focused questions require a simple factual response, whereas only ~~20–30~~ per cent lead pupils to explain, clarify, expand, generalise or infer. In other words, only a minority of questions demand that pupils use higher-order thinking skills.		Overall, the research shows that effective teachers use a greater number of higher- order questions and open questions than less effective teachers. However, the research also demonstrates that most of the questions asked by both effective and less effective teachers are lower order and closed. It is estimated that 70â80 per cent of all learning-focused questions require a simple factual response, whereas only 20â30 per cent lead pupils to explain, clarify, expand, generalise or infer. In other words, only a minority of questions demand that pupils use higher-order thinking skills.

	<section end=What/>		<section end=What/>
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	'''How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?'''		'''How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?'''

	It ~~doesn’t~~ matter how good and well structured your questions are if your pupils do not respond. This can be a problem with shy pupils or older pupils who are not used to highly interactive teaching. It can also be a problem with pupils who are not very interested in school or engaged with learning. The research identifies a number of strategies which are helpful in encouraging pupil response. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Rowe 1986; Black and Harrison 2001; Black et al. 2002.)		It doesnât matter how good and well structured your questions are if your pupils do not respond. This can be a problem with shy pupils or older pupils who are not used to highly interactive teaching. It can also be a problem with pupils who are not very interested in school or engaged with learning. The research identifies a number of strategies which are helpful in encouraging pupil response. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Rowe 1986; Black and Harrison 2001; Black et al. 2002.)

	Pupil response is enhanced where		Pupil response is enhanced where
	* there is a classroom climate in which pupils feel safe and know they will not be criticised or ridiculed if they give a wrong answer;		* there is a classroom climate in which pupils feel safe and know they will not be criticised or ridiculed if they give a wrong answer;
	* prompts are provided to give pupils confidence to try an answer;		* prompts are provided to give pupils confidence to try an answer;
	* there is a ~~‘no~~-~~hands’~~ approach to answering, where you choose the respondent rather than have them volunteer;		* there is a âno-handsâ approach to answering, where you choose the respondent rather than have them volunteer;
	* ~~‘wait time’~~ is provided before an answer is required. The research suggests that 3 seconds is about right for most questions, with the proviso that more complex questions may need a longer wait time. Research shows that the average wait time in classrooms is about 1 second (Rowe 1986; Borich 1996).		* âwait timeâ is provided before an answer is required. The research suggests that 3 seconds is about right for most questions, with the proviso that more complex questions may need a longer wait time. Research shows that the average wait time in classrooms is about 1 second (Rowe 1986; Borich 1996).
	<section end=How/>		<section end=How/>

	<section begin=Why/>		<section begin=Why/>
	'''How do questions develop ~~pupils’~~ cognitive abilities?'''		'''How do questions develop pupilsâ cognitive abilities?'''

	Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to ~~pupils’~~ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that ~~pupils’~~ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)		Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to pupilsâ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that pupilsâ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)

	When you are planning higher-level questions, you will find it useful to use ~~Bloom’s~~ taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom and Krathwohl 1956) to help structure questions which will require higher-level thinking. ~~Bloom’s~~ taxonomy is a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning. The taxonomy classifies cognitive learning into six levels of complexity and abstraction		When you are planning higher-level questions, you will find it useful to use Bloomâs taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom and Krathwohl 1956) to help structure questions which will require higher-level thinking. Bloomâs taxonomy is a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning. The taxonomy classifies cognitive learning into six levels of complexity and abstraction
	# Knowledge – pupils should: describe; identify; recall.		# Knowledge â pupils should: describe; identify; recall.
	# Comprehension – pupils should: translate; review; report; restate.		# Comprehension â pupils should: translate; review; report; restate.
	# Application – pupils should: interpret; predict; show how; solve; try in a new context.		# Application â pupils should: interpret; predict; show how; solve; try in a new context.
	# Analysis – pupils should: explain; infer; analyse; question; test; criticise.		# Analysis â pupils should: explain; infer; analyse; question; test; criticise.
	# Synthesis – pupils should: design; create; arrange; organise; construct.		# Synthesis â pupils should: design; create; arrange; organise; construct.
	# Evaluation – pupils should: assess; compare and contrast; appraise; argue; select.		# Evaluation â pupils should: assess; compare and contrast; appraise; argue; select.

	On this scale, knowledge is the lowest-order thinking skill and evaluation is the highest. It is worth pointing out that, in most cases, pupils will need to be able to analyse, synthesise and evaluate if they are to attain level 5 and above in the National Curriculum and Grade C and above at GCSE.		On this scale, knowledge is the lowest-order thinking skill and evaluation is the highest. It is worth pointing out that, in most cases, pupils will need to be able to analyse, synthesise and evaluate if they are to attain level 5 and above in the National Curriculum and Grade C and above at GCSE.
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	'''References'''		'''References'''

	*Black, P. and Harrison, C. (2001) ~~‘Feedback~~ in questioning and marking: the science ~~teacher’s~~ role in formative ~~assessment’~~. ''School Science Review ''82 (June) ~~43–49~~.		*Black, P. and Harrison, C. (2001) âFeedback in questioning and marking: the science teacherâs role in formative assessmentâ. ''School Science Review ''82 (June) 43â49.
	*Black, P. et al. (2002) ''Working inside the black box: assessment for learning in the classroom. ''~~King’s~~ College, London. ISBN: 1871984394.		*Black, P. et al. (2002) ''Working inside the black box: assessment for learning in the classroom. ''Kingâs College, London. ISBN: 1871984394.
	*Bloom, B. S. and Krathwohl, D. (1956) ''Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals''. Handbook 1: ''Cognitive domain. ''Addison Wesley. ISBN: 0582323878.		*Bloom, B. S. and Krathwohl, D. (1956) ''Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals''. Handbook 1: ''Cognitive domain. ''Addison Wesley. ISBN: 0582323878.
	*Borich, G. D. (1996) ''Effective teaching methods ''(esp. ch. 8, Questioning strategies). Prentice Hall. ISBN: 002312461X.		*Borich, G. D. (1996) ''Effective teaching methods ''(esp. ch. 8, Questioning strategies). Prentice Hall. ISBN: 002312461X.
	*Morgan, N. and Saxton, J. (1994) ''Asking better questions: models, techniques and classroom activities for engaging students in learning''. Pembroke.ISBN: 1551380455.		*Morgan, N. and Saxton, J. (1994) ''Asking better questions: models, techniques and classroom activities for engaging students in learning''. Pembroke.ISBN: 1551380455.
	* Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2001) ''Effective teaching: evidence and practice'' (esp. ch. 2, Interactive teaching). Paul Chapman. ISBN: 0761968814.		* Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2001) ''Effective teaching: evidence and practice'' (esp. ch. 2, Interactive teaching). Paul Chapman. ISBN: 0761968814.
	* Rowe, M. B. (1986) ~~‘Wait~~ time: slowing down may be a way of speeding up!’ ''Journal of Teacher Education ''37 (~~January–February~~) ~~43–50~~.		* Rowe, M. B. (1986) âWait time: slowing down may be a way of speeding up!â ''Journal of Teacher Education ''37 (JanuaryâFebruary) 43â50.
	* Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001) ''Questioning in the secondary school.'' Routledge. ISBN: 014524952X.		* Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001) ''Questioning in the secondary school.'' Routledge. ISBN: 014524952X.

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Bjoern at 17:42, 6 February 2015

2015-02-06T17:42:59Z

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	=Summary of research=		=Summary of research=

Bjoern: Fixing tagging, as well as cross-curric, vocabulary, distance learning, share practice, DfE, DfEScience templates

2012-09-28T08:48:35Z

Fixing tagging, as well as cross-curric, vocabulary, distance learning, share practice, DfE, DfEScience templates

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SimonKnight at 09:15, 29 August 2012

2012-08-29T09:15:03Z

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SimonKnight at 12:15, 23 August 2012

2012-08-23T12:15:25Z

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	* Rowe, M. B. (1986) ‘Wait time: slowing down may be a way of speeding up!’ ''Journal of Teacher Education ''37 (January–February) 43–50.		* Rowe, M. B. (1986) ‘Wait time: slowing down may be a way of speeding up!’ ''Journal of Teacher Education ''37 (January–February) 43–50.
	* Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001) ''Questioning in the secondary school.'' Routledge. ISBN: 014524952X.		* Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001) ''Questioning in the secondary school.'' Routledge. ISBN: 014524952X.

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SimonKnight at 11:19, 23 August 2012

2012-08-23T11:19:36Z

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			<section begin=Body/>
	=Summary of research=		=Summary of research=
	<section begin=Intro />		<section begin=Intro />
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	Bloom researched thousands of questions routinely asked by teachers and categorised them. His research, and that of others, suggests that most learning- focused questions asked in classrooms fall into the first two categories, with few questions falling into the other categories which relate to higher-order thinking skills.		Bloom researched thousands of questions routinely asked by teachers and categorised them. His research, and that of others, suggests that most learning- focused questions asked in classrooms fall into the first two categories, with few questions falling into the other categories which relate to higher-order thinking skills.
	<section end=Why/>		<section end=Why/>
			<section end=Body/>
	'''References'''		'''References'''

SimonKnight at 11:10, 23 August 2012

2012-08-23T11:10:51Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:10, 23 August 2012
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	'''What is effective questioning?'''		'''What is effective questioning?'''

	Questioning is effective when it allows pupils to engage with the learning process by actively composing responses. Research (Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds		Questioning is effective when it allows pupils to engage with the learning process by actively composing responses. Research (Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001) suggests that lessons where questioning is effective are likely to have the following characteristics

	2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001) suggests that lessons where questioning is effective are likely to have the following characteristics
	* Questions are planned and closely linked to the objectives of the lesson.		* Questions are planned and closely linked to the objectives of the lesson.
	*The learning of basic skills is enhanced by frequent questions following the exposition of new content that has been broken down into small steps. Each step should be followed by guided practice that provides opportunities for pupils to consolidate what they have learned and that allows teachers to check understanding.		*The learning of basic skills is enhanced by frequent questions following the exposition of new content that has been broken down into small steps. Each step should be followed by guided practice that provides opportunities for pupils to consolidate what they have learned and that allows teachers to check understanding.
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	'''How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?'''		'''How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?'''

	It doesn’t matter how good and well structured your questions are if your pupils do not respond. This can be a problem with shy pupils or older pupils who are not		It doesn’t matter how good and well structured your questions are if your pupils do not respond. This can be a problem with shy pupils or older pupils who are not used to highly interactive teaching. It can also be a problem with pupils who are not very interested in school or engaged with learning. The research identifies a number of strategies which are helpful in encouraging pupil response. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Rowe 1986; Black and Harrison 2001; Black et al. 2002.)

	used to highly interactive teaching. It can also be a problem with pupils who are not very interested in school or engaged with learning. The research identifies a number of strategies which are helpful in encouraging pupil response. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Rowe 1986; Black and Harrison 2001; Black et al. 2002.)

	Pupil response is enhanced where		Pupil response is enhanced where

SimonKnight at 11:07, 23 August 2012

2012-08-23T11:07:10Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:07, 23 August 2012
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	<section begin=Intro />		<section begin=Intro />
	'''Effective questioning'''		'''Effective questioning'''

	Research evidence suggests that effective teachers use a greater number of open questions than less effective teachers. The mix of open and closed questions will, of course, depend on what is being taught and the objectives of the lesson. However, teachers who ask no open questions in a lesson may be providing insufficient cognitive challenges for pupils.		Research evidence suggests that effective teachers use a greater number of open questions than less effective teachers. The mix of open and closed questions will, of course, depend on what is being taught and the objectives of the lesson. However, teachers who ask no open questions in a lesson may be providing insufficient cognitive challenges for pupils.
	<section end=Intro />		<section end=Intro />
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	<section begin=Why/>		<section begin=Why/>
	'''How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?'''		'''How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?'''

	Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to pupils’ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that pupils’ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)		Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to pupils’ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that pupils’ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)

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	'''References'''		'''References'''

	*Black, P. and Harrison, C. (2001) ‘Feedback in questioning and marking: the science teacher’s role in formative assessment’. ''School Science Review ''82 (June) 43–49.		*Black, P. and Harrison, C. (2001) ‘Feedback in questioning and marking: the science teacher’s role in formative assessment’. ''School Science Review ''82 (June) 43–49.
	*Black, P. et al. (2002) ''Working inside the black box: assessment for learning in the classroom. ''King’s College, London. ISBN: 1871984394.		*Black, P. et al. (2002) ''Working inside the black box: assessment for learning in the classroom. ''King’s College, London. ISBN: 1871984394.

SimonKnight at 11:06, 23 August 2012

2012-08-23T11:06:40Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:06, 23 August 2012
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	=Summary of research=		=Summary of research=
	<begin ~~section~~=Intro />		<section begin=Intro />
	'''Effective questioning'''		'''Effective questioning'''
	Research evidence suggests that effective teachers use a greater number of open questions than less effective teachers. The mix of open and closed questions will, of course, depend on what is being taught and the objectives of the lesson. However, teachers who ask no open questions in a lesson may be providing insufficient cognitive challenges for pupils.		Research evidence suggests that effective teachers use a greater number of open questions than less effective teachers. The mix of open and closed questions will, of course, depend on what is being taught and the objectives of the lesson. However, teachers who ask no open questions in a lesson may be providing insufficient cognitive challenges for pupils.
	<end ~~section~~=Intro />		<section end=Intro />
	Questioning is one of the most extensively researched areas of teaching and learning. This is because of its central importance in the teaching and learning process. The research falls into three broad categories		Questioning is one of the most extensively researched areas of teaching and learning. This is because of its central importance in the teaching and learning process. The research falls into three broad categories
	* What is effective questioning?		* What is effective questioning?
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	* How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?		* How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?

	<begin ~~section~~=What/>		<section begin=What/>
	'''What is effective questioning?'''		'''What is effective questioning?'''

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	Overall, the research shows that effective teachers use a greater number of higher- order questions and open questions than less effective teachers. However, the research also demonstrates that most of the questions asked by both effective and less effective teachers are lower order and closed. It is estimated that 70–80 per cent of all learning-focused questions require a simple factual response, whereas only 20–30 per cent lead pupils to explain, clarify, expand, generalise or infer. In other words, only a minority of questions demand that pupils use higher-order thinking skills.		Overall, the research shows that effective teachers use a greater number of higher- order questions and open questions than less effective teachers. However, the research also demonstrates that most of the questions asked by both effective and less effective teachers are lower order and closed. It is estimated that 70–80 per cent of all learning-focused questions require a simple factual response, whereas only 20–30 per cent lead pupils to explain, clarify, expand, generalise or infer. In other words, only a minority of questions demand that pupils use higher-order thinking skills.

	<end ~~section~~=What/>		<section end=What/>
	<begin ~~section~~=How/>		<section begin=How/>
	'''How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?'''		'''How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?'''

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	* there is a ‘no-hands’ approach to answering, where you choose the respondent rather than have them volunteer;		* there is a ‘no-hands’ approach to answering, where you choose the respondent rather than have them volunteer;
	* ‘wait time’ is provided before an answer is required. The research suggests that 3 seconds is about right for most questions, with the proviso that more complex questions may need a longer wait time. Research shows that the average wait time in classrooms is about 1 second (Rowe 1986; Borich 1996).		* ‘wait time’ is provided before an answer is required. The research suggests that 3 seconds is about right for most questions, with the proviso that more complex questions may need a longer wait time. Research shows that the average wait time in classrooms is about 1 second (Rowe 1986; Borich 1996).
	<end ~~section~~=How/>		<section end=How/>

	<begin ~~section~~=Why/>		<section begin=Why/>
	'''How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?'''		'''How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?'''
	Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to pupils’ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that pupils’ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)		Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to pupils’ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that pupils’ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)
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	Bloom researched thousands of questions routinely asked by teachers and categorised them. His research, and that of others, suggests that most learning- focused questions asked in classrooms fall into the first two categories, with few questions falling into the other categories which relate to higher-order thinking skills.		Bloom researched thousands of questions routinely asked by teachers and categorised them. His research, and that of others, suggests that most learning- focused questions asked in classrooms fall into the first two categories, with few questions falling into the other categories which relate to higher-order thinking skills.
	<end ~~section~~=Why/>		<section end=Why/>

	'''References'''		'''References'''

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:30, 6 February 2015
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	* What is effective questioning?		* What is effective questioning?
	* How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?		* How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?
	* How do questions develop ~~pupilsâ~~ cognitive abilities?		* How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?

	<section begin=What/>		<section begin=What/>
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	* The classroom climate is one where pupils feel secure enough to take risks, be tentative and make mistakes.		* The classroom climate is one where pupils feel secure enough to take risks, be tentative and make mistakes.

	The research emphasises the importance of using open, higher-level questions to develop ~~pupilsâ~~ higher-order thinking skills. Clearly there needs to be a balance between open and closed questions, depending on the topic and objectives for the lesson. A closed question, such as ~~âWhat~~ is the next number in the sequence?~~â~~, can be extended by a follow-up question, such as ~~âHow~~ did you work that out?~~â~~		The research emphasises the importance of using open, higher-level questions to develop pupils’ higher-order thinking skills. Clearly there needs to be a balance between open and closed questions, depending on the topic and objectives for the lesson. A closed question, such as ‘What is the next number in the sequence?’, can be extended by a follow-up question, such as ‘How did you work that out?’

	Overall, the research shows that effective teachers use a greater number of higher- order questions and open questions than less effective teachers. However, the research also demonstrates that most of the questions asked by both effective and less effective teachers are lower order and closed. It is estimated that ~~70â80~~ per cent of all learning-focused questions require a simple factual response, whereas only ~~20â30~~ per cent lead pupils to explain, clarify, expand, generalise or infer. In other words, only a minority of questions demand that pupils use higher-order thinking skills.		Overall, the research shows that effective teachers use a greater number of higher- order questions and open questions than less effective teachers. However, the research also demonstrates that most of the questions asked by both effective and less effective teachers are lower order and closed. It is estimated that 70–80 per cent of all learning-focused questions require a simple factual response, whereas only 20–30 per cent lead pupils to explain, clarify, expand, generalise or infer. In other words, only a minority of questions demand that pupils use higher-order thinking skills.

	<section end=What/>		<section end=What/>
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	'''How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?'''		'''How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?'''

	It ~~doesnât~~ matter how good and well structured your questions are if your pupils do not respond. This can be a problem with shy pupils or older pupils who are not used to highly interactive teaching. It can also be a problem with pupils who are not very interested in school or engaged with learning. The research identifies a number of strategies which are helpful in encouraging pupil response. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Rowe 1986; Black and Harrison 2001; Black et al. 2002.)		It doesn’t matter how good and well structured your questions are if your pupils do not respond. This can be a problem with shy pupils or older pupils who are not used to highly interactive teaching. It can also be a problem with pupils who are not very interested in school or engaged with learning. The research identifies a number of strategies which are helpful in encouraging pupil response. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Rowe 1986; Black and Harrison 2001; Black et al. 2002.)

	Pupil response is enhanced where		Pupil response is enhanced where
	* there is a classroom climate in which pupils feel safe and know they will not be criticised or ridiculed if they give a wrong answer;		* there is a classroom climate in which pupils feel safe and know they will not be criticised or ridiculed if they give a wrong answer;
	* prompts are provided to give pupils confidence to try an answer;		* prompts are provided to give pupils confidence to try an answer;
	* there is a ~~âno~~-~~handsâ~~ approach to answering, where you choose the respondent rather than have them volunteer;		* there is a ‘no-hands’ approach to answering, where you choose the respondent rather than have them volunteer;
	* ~~âwait timeâ~~ is provided before an answer is required. The research suggests that 3 seconds is about right for most questions, with the proviso that more complex questions may need a longer wait time. Research shows that the average wait time in classrooms is about 1 second (Rowe 1986; Borich 1996).		* ‘wait time’ is provided before an answer is required. The research suggests that 3 seconds is about right for most questions, with the proviso that more complex questions may need a longer wait time. Research shows that the average wait time in classrooms is about 1 second (Rowe 1986; Borich 1996).
	<section end=How/>		<section end=How/>

	<section begin=Why/>		<section begin=Why/>
	'''How do questions develop ~~pupilsâ~~ cognitive abilities?'''		'''How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?'''

	Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to ~~pupilsâ~~ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that ~~pupilsâ~~ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)		Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to pupils’ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that pupils’ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)

	When you are planning higher-level questions, you will find it useful to use ~~Bloomâs~~ taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom and Krathwohl 1956) to help structure questions which will require higher-level thinking. ~~Bloomâs~~ taxonomy is a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning. The taxonomy classifies cognitive learning into six levels of complexity and abstraction		When you are planning higher-level questions, you will find it useful to use Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom and Krathwohl 1956) to help structure questions which will require higher-level thinking. Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning. The taxonomy classifies cognitive learning into six levels of complexity and abstraction
	# Knowledge ~~â~~ pupils should: describe; identify; recall.		# Knowledge – pupils should: describe; identify; recall.
	# Comprehension ~~â~~ pupils should: translate; review; report; restate.		# Comprehension – pupils should: translate; review; report; restate.
	# Application ~~â~~ pupils should: interpret; predict; show how; solve; try in a new context.		# Application – pupils should: interpret; predict; show how; solve; try in a new context.
	# Analysis ~~â~~ pupils should: explain; infer; analyse; question; test; criticise.		# Analysis – pupils should: explain; infer; analyse; question; test; criticise.
	# Synthesis ~~â~~ pupils should: design; create; arrange; organise; construct.		# Synthesis – pupils should: design; create; arrange; organise; construct.
	# Evaluation ~~â~~ pupils should: assess; compare and contrast; appraise; argue; select.		# Evaluation – pupils should: assess; compare and contrast; appraise; argue; select.

	On this scale, knowledge is the lowest-order thinking skill and evaluation is the highest. It is worth pointing out that, in most cases, pupils will need to be able to analyse, synthesise and evaluate if they are to attain level 5 and above in the National Curriculum and Grade C and above at GCSE.		On this scale, knowledge is the lowest-order thinking skill and evaluation is the highest. It is worth pointing out that, in most cases, pupils will need to be able to analyse, synthesise and evaluate if they are to attain level 5 and above in the National Curriculum and Grade C and above at GCSE.
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	'''References'''		'''References'''

	*Black, P. and Harrison, C. (2001) ~~âFeedback~~ in questioning and marking: the science ~~teacherâs~~ role in formative ~~assessmentâ~~. ''School Science Review ''82 (June) ~~43â49~~.		*Black, P. and Harrison, C. (2001) ‘Feedback in questioning and marking: the science teacher’s role in formative assessment’. ''School Science Review ''82 (June) 43–49.
	*Black, P. et al. (2002) ''Working inside the black box: assessment for learning in the classroom. ''~~Kingâs~~ College, London. ISBN: 1871984394.		*Black, P. et al. (2002) ''Working inside the black box: assessment for learning in the classroom. ''King’s College, London. ISBN: 1871984394.
	*Bloom, B. S. and Krathwohl, D. (1956) ''Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals''. Handbook 1: ''Cognitive domain. ''Addison Wesley. ISBN: 0582323878.		*Bloom, B. S. and Krathwohl, D. (1956) ''Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals''. Handbook 1: ''Cognitive domain. ''Addison Wesley. ISBN: 0582323878.
	*Borich, G. D. (1996) ''Effective teaching methods ''(esp. ch. 8, Questioning strategies). Prentice Hall. ISBN: 002312461X.		*Borich, G. D. (1996) ''Effective teaching methods ''(esp. ch. 8, Questioning strategies). Prentice Hall. ISBN: 002312461X.
	*Morgan, N. and Saxton, J. (1994) ''Asking better questions: models, techniques and classroom activities for engaging students in learning''. Pembroke.ISBN: 1551380455.		*Morgan, N. and Saxton, J. (1994) ''Asking better questions: models, techniques and classroom activities for engaging students in learning''. Pembroke.ISBN: 1551380455.
	* Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2001) ''Effective teaching: evidence and practice'' (esp. ch. 2, Interactive teaching). Paul Chapman. ISBN: 0761968814.		* Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2001) ''Effective teaching: evidence and practice'' (esp. ch. 2, Interactive teaching). Paul Chapman. ISBN: 0761968814.
	* Rowe, M. B. (1986) ~~âWait~~ time: slowing down may be a way of speeding up!~~â~~ ''Journal of Teacher Education ''37 (~~JanuaryâFebruary~~) ~~43â50~~.		* Rowe, M. B. (1986) ‘Wait time: slowing down may be a way of speeding up!’ ''Journal of Teacher Education ''37 (January–February) 43–50.
	* Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001) ''Questioning in the secondary school.'' Routledge. ISBN: 014524952X.		* Wragg, E. C. and Brown, G. (2001) ''Questioning in the secondary school.'' Routledge. ISBN: 014524952X.

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	{{DfES Ped Pack}}		{{DfES Ped Pack}}