Teaching Approaches/Assessment

From OER in Education
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Readers working in Intial Teacher Education (ITE), or students engaged on ITE course may find it useful to read the Assessment Overview, which is targeted at ITE providers.

Assessment may take many forms, including whole class, and individual. Readers should consider reading the pages on these approaches in addition to the guidance given below. Where appropriate links have been incorporated - if you are a wiki-contributor, please do add further internal links, and if of high quality (especially CC licenced), external too.

What is effective assessment?

Assessment for learning

  • is embedded in a view of teaching and learning of which it is an essential part. Assessment for learning is not something extra or ‘bolted on’ that a teacher has to do. Pupil learning is the principal aim of schools and assessment for learning aims to provide pupils with the skills and strategies for taking the next steps in their learning;
  • involves sharing learning goals with pupils. If pupils understand the main purposes of their learning and what they are aiming for, they are more likely to grasp what they need to do to achieve it;
  • aims to help pupils to know and recognise the standards that they are aiming for. Learners need to be clear about exactly what they have to achieve in order to progress. They should have access to the criteria that will be used to judge this, and be shown examples or models where other learners have been successful. Pupils need to understand what counts as ‘good work’;
  • involves pupils in peer and self-assessment. Ultimately, learners must be responsible for their own learning; the teacher cannot do that for them. So pupils must be actively involved in the process and need to be encouraged to see for themselves how they have progressed in their learning and what it is they need to do to improve. Teachers need to encourage pupils to review their work critically and constructively;
  • provides feedback, which leads to pupils recognising their next steps and how to take them. Feedback should be about the qualities of the work with specific advice on what needs to be done in order to improve. Pupils need to be given the time to act on advice and make decisions about their work, rather than being the passive recipients of teachers’ judgements;
  • involves both teacher and pupil in reviewing and reflecting on assessment data (information). Pupils need to have opportunities to communicate their evolving understanding and to act on the feedback they are given. The interaction between teacher and pupil is an important element of developing understanding and promoting learning;
  • is underpinned by confidence that every student can improve. Poor feedback can lead to pupils believing that they lack ‘ability’ and are not able to learn. Pupils will only invest effort in a task if they believe they can achieve something. The expectation in the classroom needs to be that every pupil can make progress in his or her learning.
Based on: Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for learning: beyond the black box. University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education. ISBN: 0856030422. (Adapted from Assessment for Learning Introduction, section What).

Readers should also refer to Assessment for Learning Research Summary and the references contained therein.

How might we use AfL

The following table suggests some teaching strategies that will support the development of assessment for learning in your classroom.

Key characteristics of assessment for learning Teaching strategies
Sharing learning objectives with pupils
  • share learning objectives at the beginning of the lesson and, where appropriate, during the lesson, in language that pupils can understand
  • use these objectives as the basis for questioning and feedback during plenaries
  • evaluate this feedback in relation to achievement of the learning objectives to inform the next stages of planning
Helping pupils to know and recognise the standards they are aiming for
  • show pupils work that has met criteria with explanations of why
  • give pupils clear success criteria and then relate them to the learning objectives
  • model what it should look like, for example exemplify good writing on the board
  • ensure that there are clear shared expectations about the presentation of work
  • provide displays of pupils’ work which show work in progress as well as finished product
Involving pupils in peer and self-assessment
  • give pupils clear opportunities to talk about what they have learned and what they have found difficult, using the learning objectives as a focus
  • encourage pupils to work/discuss together, focusing on how to improve
  • ask pupils to explain their thinking: ‘How did you get that answer?’
  • give time for pupils to reflect upon their learning
  • identify with pupils the next steps in learning
Providing feedback that leads pupils to recognising their next steps and how to take them
  • value oral as well as written feedback
  • ensure feedback is constructive as well as positive, identifying what the pupil has done well, what needs to be done to improve and how to do it
  • identify the next steps for groups and individuals as appropriate
Promoting confidence that every pupil can improve
  • identify small steps to enable pupils to see their progress, thus building confidence and self-esteem
  • encourage pupils to explain their thinking and reasoning within a secure classroom ethos
Involving both teacher and pupil in reviewing and reflecting on assessment information
  • reflect with pupils on their work, for example through a storyboard of steps taken during an investigation
  • choose appropriate tasks to provide quality information (with emphasis on process, not just the correct answer)
  • provide time for pupils to reflect on what they have learned and understood, and to identify where they still have difficulties
  • adjust planning, evaluate effectiveness of task, resources, etc. as a result of assessment

(Adapted from Assessment for Learning Introduction, section How).

High Quality Questioning

Readers should refer to the general guidance Questioning Research Summary And the more practical Types Of Question As well as our resources ... (e.g. Mark Dawes)

With respect to assessment, should specifically note

High Quality Dialogue

Effective Group Work

Group work effective for raising standards for all Bear in mind, e.g. Bob Slavin's point re aim being for (general point, not a quote) "all in the group to be able to give and explain the correct answer, not just for all in the group to be able to parrot it, or for the group (as a collective) to be able to give an answer (which could stem from one individual)".


Group Talk - a Method for Assessment?

Why do it? What are the benefits to the learner?

  • Higher-level thinking Pupils are challenged to defend, review and modify their ideas with their peers. It encourages reflection and metacognition (thinking about one’s own thinking). Pupils often communicate ideas better with other pupils than with teachers.
  • Assessment for learning Effectively reveals the progress of the pupil to the teacher, encouraging the pupil to self- and peer-assess while allowing the teacher to plan more effectively. As such, group talk complements methods embraced as Assessment for learning.
  • Illustrating science in action Working scientists use group talk – in class it models how they work, supporting the teaching of the ‘ideas and evidence’ aspects of scientific enquiry.
  • Developing the whole child The ability to resolve disagreements is a life-skill.

Pupils become more reflective as they try to arrive at a consensus by expressing different points of view; or work collaboratively to explore ideas, plan and make decisions. Further, it supports the development of literacy.

  • Pupil motivation and emotional involvement When argument is taking place, and pupils are actively prompted and provoked to defend a point of view – by the teacher and by others – it raises the emotional involvement in a topic, so that pupils are more engaged. In essence, they are being encouraged to ‘care’ about the science viewpoint they have, and to take a stand for or against it, even if they concede to others along the way. These features are more common in good English, RE and humanities lessons.
  • Variety and learning styles Can be used as an alternative to written or practical work (for example, experiments), or just listening as the teacher explains and demonstrates. Group talk encourages the use of different learning styles and thus can be inclusive to pupils excluded from more traditional (and often written) activities. (Adapted from Group Talk - Benefits for Science Teaching, section Why).

Use of ICT

Can automate some sorts of feedback Use for collaborative work Engagement Clickers

Writing

Since writing involves the integration of several processes, re-reading to revise is important (Norwood, Hayes and Flower 1980). Chanquoy (2001) shows the positive effect of returning to writing after the event. The time delay seems to help, but the techniques for revising need to be explicitly taught, that is modelled by the teacher. Glynn et al. (1989), behavioural psychologists researching in New Zealand classrooms, found considerable evidence that positive oral feedback has an impact on both motivation and the amount written. This was found to be more significant when errors were selectively targeted and when pupils were involved in error correction and praised for this. The research suggests that teachers’ comments should be organisational, encouraging, constructive, challenging and push pupils’ thinking. The work of Black and Wiliam (1998) and Black et al. (2002) looks at formative assessment and its relationship to raising standards in pupils’ learning. They comment that effective feedback needs to make explicit to pupils what is involved in producing high-quality writing and what steps are needed for improvement. They suggest that pupils should be actively engaged in the thinking and discussion involved. (Adapted from Improving Writing - Research Summary, section Assessment). For further guidance on Improving Writing, refer to the document Improving Writing - Research Summary.

Improving Reading

Over the last decade we have become increasingly aware of the importance of metacognition in learning to read (Baker and Brown 1984). One of the characteristics distinguishing younger readers from older readers, and poorer readers from fluent readers, is that younger and poorer readers often do not recognise when they have not understood a text (Garner and Reis 1981); that is, there is evidence that they are not actively aware of their own level of understanding and are therefore not able to make an autonomous decision to use a strategy to enhance their understanding. Other readers show a greater awareness of their own level of understanding for they will stop when a text does not make sense to them. Some will then go on to select from their range of strategies that which might help overcome their problem.

In shared and guided reading sessions we can model for pupils how fluent readers monitor their understanding and use strategies to clarify their own understanding. These may range from semantic strategies to work out a troublesome word to sophisticated reflections on whether the meaning is deliberately obscure (as in a mystery) or perhaps challenging the author/text because the reader thinks they are incorrect. Such teacher modelling is an important part of the learning opportunities within reading sessions. (Adapted from Improving Reading - Research Summary, section Assessment).. For further guidance on Improving Reading, refer to the document Improving Reading - Research Summary.

The Typical Structure of Dialogue

A striking insight provided by classroom research is that much talk between teachers and their pupils has the following pattern: a teacher's question, a pupil's response, and then an evaluative comment by the teacher. This is described as an Initiation-Response-Feedback exchange, or IRF. Here's an example

I Teacher - What's the capital city of Argentina?
R Pupil - Buenos Aires
F Teacher - Yes, well done

This pattern was first pointed out in the 1970s by the British researchers Sinclair and Coulthard. Their original research was reported in

Sinclair, J. and Coulthard, M. (1975) Towards an Analysis of Discourse: the English used by Teachers and Pupils. London: Oxford University Press.

Sinclair and Coulthard's research has been the basis for extended debates about whether or not teachers should ask so many questions to which they already know the answer; and further debate about the range of uses and purposes of IRF in working classrooms. Despite all this, it seems that many teachers (even those who have qualified in recent decades) have not heard of it. Is this because their training did not include any examination of the structures of classroom talk – or because even if it did, the practical value of such an examination was not made clear?

A teacher's professional development (and, indeed, the development of members of any profession) should involve the gaining of critical insights into professional practice – to learn to see behind the ordinary, the taken for granted, and to question the effectiveness of what is normally done. Recognizing the inherent structure of teacher-pupil talk is a valuable step in that direction. Student teachers need to see how they almost inevitably converge on other teachers' style and generate the conventional patterns of classroom talk. By noting this, they can begin to consider what effects this has on pupil participation in class. There is nothing wrong with the use of IRFs by teachers, but question-and-answer routines can be used both productively and unproductively. By understanding and questioning what generally happens, students can begin to construct the kind of dialogues that they can feel confident have most educational value. (Adapted from The Importance of Speaking and Listening, section IRF).

The Importance of Identifying High Quality Talk

A main concern for assessment is to consider how well the talk suits the kind of event in which children are participating. Criteria are likely to be different, depending on whether they are talking in a group, making a presentation to the class, engaged in a drama-related activity, discussing ideas in citizenship, and so on. Helping any child improve their current competence requires some sort of assessment. Talk is difficult to assess because it is context dependent and ephemeral, but good opportunities for assessment occur regularly, especially in 'talk-focused' classrooms where both teacher and children are aware of the importance of speaking and listening for learning. This is the situation students need to be able to both recognise and create.

There are of course some aspects of evaluating children's talk where great sensitivity is needed. The ways people talk can be closely related to their identities, and student teachers may rightly worry about making evaluations of some aspects of a child's way of speaking such as their accent. Student teachers will need to appreciate the distinction between on the one hand using an assessment to help a child to become more involved in learning conversations, or to develop their presentation skills, and on the other trying to alter a child's accent or to ban the use of dialect in the classroom simply because it 'sounds wrong'. (Adapted from The Importance of Speaking and Listening, section Assessment).