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'''Some basics'''
'''Some basics'''
<section begin=What/>
<section begin=What/>
Collaborative work in small groups is designed to develop ‘higher order’ skills. The key elements are the talking and associated thinking that take place between group members. However, putting pupils in groups is no guarantee that they work as groups (Bennett 1976), so much deliberate work needs to be done to make group work productive.
Collaborative work in small groups is designed to develop ‘higher order’ skills. The key elements are the talking and associated thinking that take place between group members. However, putting pupils in groups is no guarantee that they work as groups (Bennett 1976), so much deliberate work needs to be done to make group work productive.


According to Johnson and Johnson (1999) the cooperative group has five defining elements:
According to Johnson and Johnson (1999) the cooperative group has five defining elements:
*positive independence – pupils need to feel that their success depends on whether they work together or not (they sink or swim together);
*positive independence – pupils need to feel that their success depends on whether they work together or not (they sink or swim together);
*face-to-face supportive interaction – pupils need to be active in helping one another learn and provide positive feedback;
*face-to-face supportive interaction – pupils need to be active in helping one another learn and provide positive feedback;
*individual and group accountability – everyone has to feel that they contribute to achieving the group goals;
*individual and group accountability – everyone has to feel that they contribute to achieving the group goals;
*interpersonal and small-group skills – communication, trust, leadership, decision making and conflict resolution;
*interpersonal and small-group skills – communication, trust, leadership, decision making and conflict resolution;
*group processing – the group reflecting on its performance and functioning and on how to improve.
*group processing – the group reflecting on its performance and functioning and on how to improve.
<section end=What/>
<section end=What/>


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An alternative approach to individual practice is the use of cooperative small-group work during the review and practice part of the lesson. This method has gained in popularity in recent years, and has attracted a lot of research interest in a number of countries, such as the United States (Slavin 1996). In other countries such as the United Kingdom this method is still underused, however. In a recent study in primary schools Muijs and Reynolds (2001) found that less than 10% of lesson time was spent doing group work.
An alternative approach to individual practice is the use of cooperative small-group work during the review and practice part of the lesson. This method has gained in popularity in recent years, and has attracted a lot of research interest in a number of countries, such as the United States (Slavin 1996). In other countries such as the United Kingdom this method is still underused, however. In a recent study in primary schools Muijs and Reynolds (2001) found that less than 10% of lesson time was spent doing group work.


The use of small-group work is posited to have a number of advantages over individual practice. The main benefit of small-group work seems to lie in the co- operative aspects it can help foster. One advantage of this lies in the contribution this method can make to the development of students’ social skills. Working with other students may help them to develop their empathetic abilities, by allowing them to see others’ viewpoints, which can help them to realise that everyone has strengths and weaknesses. Trying to find a solution to a problem in a group also develops skills such as the need to accommodate others’ views.
The use of small-group work is posited to have a number of advantages over individual practice. The main benefit of small-group work seems to lie in the co- operative aspects it can help foster. One advantage of this lies in the contribution this method can make to the development of students’ social skills. Working with other students may help them to develop their empathetic abilities, by allowing them to see others’ viewpoints, which can help them to realise that everyone has strengths and weaknesses. Trying to find a solution to a problem in a group also develops skills such as the need to accommodate others’ views.


Students can also provide each other with scaffolding in the same way the teacher can during questioning. The total knowledge available in a group is likely to be larger than that available to individual students, which can enable more powerful problem solving and can therefore allow the teacher to give students more difficult problems than s/he could give to individual students.
Students can also provide each other with scaffolding in the same way the teacher can during questioning. The total knowledge available in a group is likely to be larger than that available to individual students, which can enable more powerful problem solving and can therefore allow the teacher to give students more difficult problems than s/he could give to individual students.
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Thus, students often lack sharing skills, which means that they have difficulty sharing time and materials and can try to dominate the group. This problem can be alleviated by teaching sharing skills, for example by using the Round Robin technique in which the teacher asks a question and introduces an idea that has many possible answers. During Round Robin questioning a first student is asked to give an answer, and then passes his turn to the next student. This goes on until all students have had a chance to contribute.
Thus, students often lack sharing skills, which means that they have difficulty sharing time and materials and can try to dominate the group. This problem can be alleviated by teaching sharing skills, for example by using the Round Robin technique in which the teacher asks a question and introduces an idea that has many possible answers. During Round Robin questioning a first student is asked to give an answer, and then passes his turn to the next student. This goes on until all students have had a chance to contribute.


Other students may lack participation skills. This means that they find it difficult to participate in group work because they are shy or uncooperative. This can be alleviated by structuring the task so that these students have to play a particular role in the group or by giving all students ‘time tokens’, worth a specified amount of ‘talk time’. Students have to give up a token to a monitor whenever they have used up their talk time, after which they are not allowed to say anything further. In this way all students get a chance to contribute.
Other students may lack participation skills. This means that they find it difficult to participate in group work because they are shy or uncooperative. This can be alleviated by structuring the task so that these students have to play a particular role in the group or by giving all students ‘time tokens’, worth a specified amount of ‘talk time’. Students have to give up a token to a monitor whenever they have used up their talk time, after which they are not allowed to say anything further. In this way all students get a chance to contribute.


Students may also lack communication skills. This means that they are not able to effectively communicate their ideas to others, obviously making it difficult for them to function in a cooperative group. Communication skills, such as paraphrasing, may need to be explicitly taught to students before small-group work can be used.
Students may also lack communication skills. This means that they are not able to effectively communicate their ideas to others, obviously making it difficult for them to function in a cooperative group. Communication skills, such as paraphrasing, may need to be explicitly taught to students before small-group work can be used.
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Avoiding free-rider effects can be aided by structuring the group task in such a way that every group member is assigned a particular task. One way of doing this is by making completion of one part of the task dependent on completion of a previous stage, so students will pressure each other to put the effort in to complete the stage before them. Johnson and Johnson (1994) suggest a number of roles that can be assigned to students in small groups, such as<nowiki>:</nowiki>
Avoiding free-rider effects can be aided by structuring the group task in such a way that every group member is assigned a particular task. One way of doing this is by making completion of one part of the task dependent on completion of a previous stage, so students will pressure each other to put the effort in to complete the stage before them. Johnson and Johnson (1994) suggest a number of roles that can be assigned to students in small groups, such as<nowiki>:</nowiki>


*the summariser, who will prepare the group’s presentation to the class and summarise conclusions reached to see if the rest of the group agrees;
*the summariser, who will prepare the group’s presentation to the class and summarise conclusions reached to see if the rest of the group agrees;
*the researcher, who collects background information and looks up any additional information that is needed to complete the task;
*the researcher, who collects background information and looks up any additional information that is needed to complete the task;
*the checker, who checks that the facts that the group will use are indeed correct and will stand up to scrutiny from the teacher or other groups;
*the checker, who checks that the facts that the group will use are indeed correct and will stand up to scrutiny from the teacher or other groups;
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Extracts from ''Effective teaching: a review of the literature''
Extracts from ''Effective teaching: a review of the literature''
© Dr David Reynolds and Dr Daniel Muijs. Used with permission (The resource referred to here is now archived in the National Archives, and OGL licenced).
© Dr David Reynolds and Dr Daniel Muijs. Used with permission (The resource referred to here is now archived in the National Archives, and OGL licenced).


'''References'''
'''References'''


* Askew, M. and Wiliam, D. (1995) ''Recent research in mathematics education''''5–16. ''Office for Standards in Education. ISBN: 0113500491.
* Askew, M. and Wiliam, D. (1995) ''Recent research in mathematics education''''5–16. ''Office for Standards in Education. ISBN: 0113500491.


*Battistich, V., Solomon, D. and Delucchi, K. (1993) ‘Interaction processes and student outcomes in cooperative learning groups’. ''Elementary School Journal''94, 19–32.
*Battistich, V., Solomon, D. and Delucchi, K. (1993) ‘Interaction processes and student outcomes in cooperative learning groups’. ''Elementary School Journal''94, 19–32.


* Bennett, N. (1976) ''Teaching styles and pupil progress''. Open Books. ISBN: 0674870956.
* Bennett, N. (1976) ''Teaching styles and pupil progress''. Open Books. ISBN: 0674870956.
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* Kagan, S. (1997) ''Cooperative learning''. Kagan Cooperative. ISBN: 1879097109.
* Kagan, S. (1997) ''Cooperative learning''. Kagan Cooperative. ISBN: 1879097109.


*Linn, M. C. and Burbules, N. C. (1994) ‘Construction of knowledge and group learning’. In K. Tobin (ed) ''The practice of constructivism in science education''. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN: 0805818782.
*Linn, M. C. and Burbules, N. C. (1994) ‘Construction of knowledge and group learning’. In K. Tobin (ed) ''The practice of constructivism in science education''. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN: 0805818782.


*Lou, Y., Abrami, P. C., Spence, J. C., Paulsen, C., Chambers, B. and d’Apollonio, S. (1996) ‘Within-class grouping: a meta-analysis’. ''Review of Educational Research ''66, 423–458.
*Lou, Y., Abrami, P. C., Spence, J. C., Paulsen, C., Chambers, B. and d’Apollonio, S. (1996) ‘Within-class grouping: a meta-analysis’. ''Review of Educational Research ''66, 423–458.


*Mercer, N., Wegerif, R. and Dawes, L. (1999) ‘Children’s talk and the development of reasoning in the classroom’. ''British Educational Research Journal ''25, 95–111.
*Mercer, N., Wegerif, R. and Dawes, L. (1999) ‘Children’s talk and the development of reasoning in the classroom’. ''British Educational Research Journal ''25, 95–111.


* Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2001) ''Effective teaching: evidence and practice.'' Sage (Paul Chapman). ISBN: 0761968814.
* Muijs, D. and Reynolds, D. (2001) ''Effective teaching: evidence and practice.'' Sage (Paul Chapman). ISBN: 0761968814.
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* National Curriculum Council and the National Oracy Project (1997) Teaching Talking and learning in Key Stage 3. National Curriculum Council titles. ISBN: 1872676278.
* National Curriculum Council and the National Oracy Project (1997) Teaching Talking and learning in Key Stage 3. National Curriculum Council titles. ISBN: 1872676278.


*Nattiv, A. (1994) ‘Helping behaviours and math achievement gain of students using cooperative learning’. ''Elementary School Journal ''94, 285–297.
*Nattiv, A. (1994) ‘Helping behaviours and math achievement gain of students using cooperative learning’. ''Elementary School Journal ''94, 285–297.


*Palincsar, A. S. and Brown, A. L. (1985) ‘Reciprocal teaching of comprehension fostering and comprehension monitoring activities’. ''Cognition and Instruction ''1, 117–175.
*Palincsar, A. S. and Brown, A. L. (1985) ‘Reciprocal teaching of comprehension fostering and comprehension monitoring activities’. ''Cognition and Instruction ''1, 117–175.


*Slavin, R. E. (1991) ''Student team learning: a practical guide to cooperative learning''. National Education Association. ISBN: 0810618451.
*Slavin, R. E. (1991) ''Student team learning: a practical guide to cooperative learning''. National Education Association. ISBN: 0810618451.
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* Slavin, R. E. (1996) ''Education for all''. Swets and Zeitlinger. ISBN: 9026514735.
* Slavin, R. E. (1996) ''Education for all''. Swets and Zeitlinger. ISBN: 9026514735.


*Webb, N. M. (1991) ‘Task-related verbal interaction and mathematics learning in small groups’. ''Journal for Research in Mathematics Education ''22, 366–389.
*Webb, N. M. (1991) ‘Task-related verbal interaction and mathematics learning in small groups’. ''Journal for Research in Mathematics Education ''22, 366–389.


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