The ORBIT coursebook

An interactive resource bank on interactive teaching

Working with the Resources

Working with our Resources

While the ORBIT materials may be used 'stand alone', or via exploration of the wiki - which highlights links between resources, lesson ideas, and teaching approaches - you may find it useful to think about how ORBIT could be used in wider Professional Development activities. Figure 1 Working with the ORBIT materials ^{(Adapted from TESSA Working With Teachers, section WorkingWithMaterials).}

What are the ORBIT resources?

The ORBIT materials promote interaction and offer ideas for innovative teaching in your classroom to help your pupils’ learning.

Once you have selected and adapted the appropriate ORBIT materials, concentrate on the following

planning your lesson
teaching methods
classroom management
time management
assessing pupils’ learning
thinking about and improving your teaching.

Planning is a continual process that helps you to think and prepare what is needed to help your pupils respond well to you and the content of what you teach.

For your pupils to learn from your lessons they need to be

interested – if they are not, nothing of any value will take place
very clear about what you want them to do and achieve.

For further information on planning and preparing your lesson plans, see Teaching Approach Planning page

Things to think about and do before the lesson starts

An ORBIT activity can take place across more than one lesson period, or for only a short part of a lesson
Some lessons can take place outside the classroom, but you need to have an alternative plan should the weather change.
It’s important to ensure you have all the resources you need at hand before the lesson starts
Organise your classroom to suit the activity
If you are using technology, have you tested that it still works?
Before you carry out an experiment, you may want to try it yourself or with your colleagues so that you are confident when trying it out with your pupils.

The ORBIT materials promote interactive pedagogy, however, as a teacher you need to remain involved throughout the lesson, even when your pupils are engaged in group work. For more information on using group work in your classroom, go to the Category:Group work

Do not panic if something in your lesson does not go according to plan. Wherever possible, during your lesson planning, create alternative activities to ensure the success of your lesson.

Things to think about and do during and after the lesson

If you involve people from outside the school in your lessons, ensure you have an alternative plan should they not turn up.

Ensure that your alternative plan fits in with the classroom arrangements already made.

Should something unexpected happen just before or during the lesson

acknowledge the problem.
involve the pupils in solving the problem.
identify parts of the lesson plan that can still take place.

Ensure that you follow up on any promises made to the class.

Teaching and learning methods

Table 2 below shows some important active teaching and learning methods and some of the skills that you will need to use as a teacher.

Table 2 Teaching and learning methods

S/N	Active teaching and learning method	Some of the teaching skills you need
1.	Building models	Thinking about what your pupils will learn. Being able to build the model yourself.
2.	Classification	Using observation.
3.	Collaborative activities	Knowing your pupils, to enable you to decide on working groups.
5.	Debate	Giving all pupils an opportunity to participate.
6.	Demonstration	Identifying what materials you will use to demonstrate. Allowing pupils to handle, draw and discuss.
7.	Discussion	Giving all pupils an opportunity to participate.
8.	Displaying real items (exhibitions)	Organising your classroom or exhibition space.Thinking how pupils can share their knowledge, e.g. labels.
9.	Games	Thinking about what your pupils will learn.Being able to play the game yourself.
10.	Group work	Arranging your classroom in advance.Deciding how to divide your pupils.Deciding on a job for each pupil in the group.
11.	Investigation/inquiry	Planning the investigation/inquiry with your pupils.Deciding how pupils will report.
12.	Making deductions	Helping pupils to discover for themselves.
13.	Mind mapping/ brainstorming	Identifying clearly the issue or problem.Letting pupils know the rules.Giving a clear summary at the end.
14.	Observation/ identification	Using local resources.Using questioning.
15.	Prediction	Helping pupils form appropriate questions.
16.	Problem solving	Setting out the problem clearly.Identifying in advance areas of difficulty.Thinking of questions which will help pupils.
17.	Project method	Using group work.Helping pupils discover and think for themselves.
18.	Questioning	Thinking about the type of question – open or closed.Encouraging a range of pupils to answer.Encouraging pupils to think for themselves.
19.	Reporting/oral presentation	Using a variety of ways – oral, posters, etc.
20.	Researching/exploration	Defining the research question.Deciding on the research method.Deciding on how the findings will be recorded.
21.	Role play	Using group work to act out a situation.Thinking about where the groups will work – inside or outside of the classroom.
22.	Simulation	Giving pupils a clear brief.
23.	Story telling/folk tales	Identifying where you can find local and other stories.Using different people to tell stories – you, pupils and local people.
24.	Student field work	Planning.Setting clear learning objectives for pupils.Using investigations.
25.	Think–pair–share	Using good time management.

^{(Adapted from TESSA Working With Teachers, section TeachingWithORBIT).}

How can ORBIT help develop Interactive Teaching, and benefit my students

How does using ORBIT materials contribute to pupil learning? The ORBIT materials provide a set of high quality, curated resources for interactive pedagogy. Such pedagogy - as is discussed in subsequent strategies - is associated with better learning outcomes.

How does using ORBIT materials contribute to Professional Development? Teachers should reflect on their lessons to determine what worked well, and what did not work well so as to improve teaching, and plan better subsequent lessons. In doing this, some of the questions you could consider are

What challenges did I have while planning and preparing for this lesson?
How did the pupils respond to the activities
(participation, interest, excitement …)?
What did my pupils learn and how do I know this?
Were there differences in what they learned?
Were the outcomes of the lesson achieved?
What was I pleased about?
What surprised me?
What, if anything, was disappointing?
What difficulties were there in teaching the topic?
Was there enough time to do the activities?
Were the resources used appropriate and adequate? ^{(Adapted from TESSA Working With Teachers, section PupilBenefits).}

ORBIT resources provide sample classroom materials, related Professional Development resources, and in many instances suggested technological tools to support interactive learning. This combination provides a solid grounding for Professional Development activities in interactive teaching, with applied examples, practical development activities, and current tools highlighted.

Teaching Approaches

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Lessons for Learning

Teaching is a complex process. Complexity increases as we factor in assessment and pupil achievement; raising standards; the variety of experience that every classroom presents; and changes to curriculum models and subject specifications. Reviewing and refining the teaching process is necessary for teachers to be able to meet the demands of the changing classroom.

What you know as a teacher is not confined to your subject or ‘content’ knowledge. As a teacher you should expect to know about how the content is defined for the range of pupils that you teach and about the common misconceptions that are a feature of your subject and how to deal with them, e.g. by using appropriate models and analogies.

You will know about general principles and strategies of classroom management and organisation, about the pupils you teach, about the community in which your school is situated and about the aims and values of the education system in which you work.

As a teacher you make decisions all the time about how you will apply your different knowledges in order that pupils might learn effectively. You will identify appropriate learning outcomes and plan how best to ensure that these outcomes are to be met in the lessons you teach. This will involve selecting and preparing resource materials to enable all pupils to progress in their knowledge, skills and understanding.

The knowledge that you have about your subject, the curriculum and the decisions that you make will inform how you teach and how you organise the classroom to focus on pupils’ learning. Your knowledge about the pupils and their rates of progress will change your view of the teaching process for each class that you take: you will amend your ‘teacher actions’ to foster appropriate learning opportunities.

You may think that you have one preferred model of teaching. Alternatively, you may believe that you are applying a variety of pedagogic approaches dependent upon the subject content and upon the pupils you are teaching.

Teaching for learning

The combination of knowledge, decisions and action should provide an impetus for effective teaching in the classroom. Effective teachers promote effective learning in a culture of high expectations. Pupils achieve more when lessons are well structured and sequenced, when teachers make objectives clear and where pupils know what they are supposed to be learning. Effective teachers interact with pupils through targeted prompting and feedback and review learning and pupil progress regularly. They see the development of themselves as teachers as a continuous process.

These principles have lessons for classroom management too. Research by Croll and Moses (2000) and Miller (1996) argued that teachers feel that 80 per cent of the causes of challenging behaviour amongst pupils are due to ‘within child’ or ‘home’ factors. This view is counteracted by research by Beaman and Wheldall (2000) who found

on-task behaviour of the same pupils varies across subjects and between teachers;
when the level of teachers’ positive verbal interventions increases, there is an increase in the level of pupils’ on-task behaviour.

Two useful 'talking points' to consider are the statements

the pupil who likes to be in trouble has yet to be born;
good behaviour needs to be taught. ^{(Adapted from Classroom Management - Thinking Point, section Whole).}

If you would like more information on classroom management, you may find the resources on the behaviour 2 learn website (mostly OGL licence) useful http://www.behaviour2learn.co.uk/site/index.php

Task Effective teaching – effective learning 30 minutes

The diagram below describes the factors that contribute to effective learning. Each factor has associated questions and prompts for you to consider.

Jot down your responses to the questions and prompts as you work through the factors – how does your preferred teaching style encourage and stimulate learning?

Skilful teachers create effective learning situations and promote powerful learning. The impact of the teacher and the approaches to teaching that are selected cannot be overstated.

Some teaching models not only help to develop pupils’ understanding of the subject-matter being taught, but can also, if approached in the right way, provide pupils with a tool they can use to support their own learning – both now and later in life. Inductive teaching, for example, requires pupils to sort, classify information and generate hypotheses and/or rules. The process of thinking inductively can be a powerful tool for solving problems, as can deductive reasoning.

Teaching in these ways can provide pupils with skills and techniques they can use later in life. This will only happen, however, if the teacher not only teaches the lesson, but also makes explicit what they are doing through the use of metacognitive processes and by involving the pupils in ‘thinking through’ the lesson.

Process of Lesson Design

The process of lesson design is summarised below. The flowchart emphasises that lesson design can be viewed as a series of decisions, each leading to and providing a foundation for the next, building a planned series of episodes.

Locate the lesson or sequence of lessons in the context of

the scheme of work;
pupils’ prior knowledge;
your knowledge about the class & individuals in it

Identify the learning objective(s) for pupils Structure the lesson as a series of episodes by separating the learning into distinct stages or steps, each of which has a specific outcome, by selecting

the best pedagogic approach to meet the learning objectives;
the most appropriate teaching and learning strategies and techniques;
the most effective organisation for each episode.

Ensure coherence by providing

a stimulating start to the lesson that relates to the objective(s);
transitions between episodes which recapitulate and launch new episodes;
a final plenary that reviews learning. ^{(Adapted from The Process of Lesson Design, section Whole).}

Factors Affecting Lesson Design

Effective, experienced teachers consider the full range of factors when designing lessons.

The learning objective(s) for a lesson will come from the scheme of work. Having clearly defined the learning objective, it is important to go one step further and consider the intended outcome. What will pupils produce at the end of the lesson or sequence of lessons that will demonstrate the learning that has taken place – for example, a piece of writing, an artefact, a presentation or the solution to a problem? You will need to be clear from the outset what a good-quality product will look like. This will help you to clarify your expectations with pupils.

Learning objectives fall into a number of categories.

The nature of the learning objective – for example, skill acquisition or developing understanding – will determine the approaches and strategies you use. ^{(Adapted from Factors Affecting Lesson Design, section Whole).}

Teaching Approaches

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Selecting and Using Resources

ORBIT materials are appropriate for pre-service, in-service and upgrading programmes at a variety of levels and for teachers with a huge range of existing skills. Teacher educators working in different contexts (universities, colleges, regional and school level) are able to use them in a variety of situations and programmes.

It is important to remember that ORBIT is not an entire curriculum for a formal teacher education programme. The purpose of ORBIT materials is to enhance areas of teacher education curricula and less formal teacher development activities in particular relating to interactive pedagogy and the use of ICT to support such teaching. ^{(Adapted from TESSA Working With Teachers, section SelectingResources).}

Mapping into a programme

For existing formal programmes the starting point is to look at both

your own teacher education curriculum
the ORBIT materials, and the Teaching Approaches we describe

to decide where it will be most appropriate to use the ORBIT materials. The Teaching Approaches described in the wiki may provide useful entry routes for ‘focus’ points in Professional Development.

The next step is to consider the format of use of the ORBIT materials, how teachers’ use of the ORBIT materials will be supported and how you might assess this use. This will depend on a number of factors:

The purpose and intended learning outcomes of your programme or course.
The number of teachers on your programme and its format (on – campus, distance learning etc).
Access to technology; internet and computers.
Support: the number and frequency of contact sessions and the expertise of tutors/ supervisors/ mentors.

We envisage 3 types of approach, as in the table

Table 3 Different types of use of ORBIT materials

Form of use of materials	Highly structured	Loosely structured	Guided use
Characteristics	Selection of a set of ORBIT activities for all student teachers/PD members to carry out	Lecturers select appropriate ORBIT activities for their own course	Designated time for student teachers to select ORBIT activities
Teacher access to materials	New teacher books which include several ORBIT sections	Website and printed ORBIT sections incorporated into pre-existing material	Website access by individuals

^{(Adapted from TESSA Working With Teachers, section MappingResources).}

Teaching, Learning and Professional Development

The resources have been designed with maximum flexibility in mind. They do not require attendance at external courses. Teachers of varying experience and competence can use them. While they are best used by groups or pairs of teachers working collaboratively, they could be used by an individual teacher (who should still have the support of a mentor or coach). They focus on the classroom as the workshop for professional development. However, while the study units offer flexibility, there is also a need to introduce an element of rigour into their use. Successful changes in practice depend on an understanding of the theory behind the change, so it is important not to ‘cherry pick’.

The resources offer a means by which teachers can investigate and develop a teaching competence or skill in a practical manner that will have an immediate impact on classroom activity and pupil learning.

The way in which the resources are used in a school will depend on the culture of the school, current and competing priorities, resources, and strengths and weaknesses of teaching and learning. It will depend on the maturity and robustness of the schools’ CPD provision. Some possibilities are described in Table 1.

Table 1

Mode of use	Advantages and disadvantages
Whole-school use of single unit	Provides a whole-school focus on a single set of related issues, and a coherent set of expectations and experiences for pupils but … could compete with alternative priorities for some teachers.
Subject department use of single unit	Provides a whole-department focus on a single set of issues but … may have less impact on pupils if not supported by whole-school approaches.
Whole-school use of a range of units	Provides a whole-school focus on strengthening teaching and learning based on priorities identified by audits but … individual changes in teaching and learning styles may have less impact on pupils if not supported by whole-school approaches.
Teaching and learning development group use of a single unit or range of units	Allows schools to build expertise and experience of new approaches where whole-staff involvement may not be possible but … may not have significant impact on pupils until new approaches are more widely adopted.
NQT, GTP or trainee use of a single unit or a range of units	Based on an assessment of needs and the use of the NQTs’ career entry development profile, could provide a useful ‘rolling programme’ of skill acquisition but … needs to be part of a coherent induction programme and have the support of an induction tutor or mentor.
Use of units across a group of schools, e.g. a LIG collaborative	Provides valuable opportunities to share and build on experiences beyond those available in a single school but … confidence and expertise may need to be developed before it can be shared.

^{(Adapted from Teaching and Learning - How to Use the Units, section Whole).}

The table below explains the characteristics of a school or department with a well-developed capacity for improvement in teaching and learning approaches.

Attribute	Examples at whole-school level	Examples at department level	How are you doing?
It routinely shares its expertise	Staff meetings regularly feature teachers demonstrating or illustrating how they teach	Collaborative planning involves teachers sharing their ideas on how work can be delivered. The department shares demonstration lessons with staff
It uses external support and challenge to enhance practice	Teachers are regularly encouraged to attend external INSET. LEA school advisers are drawn in to contribute to school self-review processes	The department uses the LEA KS3 consultants to observe lessons and provide feedback
It has a clear, operational focus	The SMT signals clearly that certain items in meetings are significant in improving teaching and learning and ensures they are given significantly more time	Meetings are focused on teaching and learning issues. The team is clear about which items require only a little time. Administrative items are given later slots in meetings
It has a well- developed set of priorities	It has a clear and operational (not cosmetic) development plan which guides resource decisions and action taken	The department has an action plan based firmly on an audit of teaching strengths and weaknesses. Resource decisions are based on declared priorities of strengths and weaknesses
It elevates professional development to a continual process	Individual teachers are enabled to watch colleagues teach on a regular and systematic basis	An audit of each team member’s skills is used as a basis for termly review discussions and lesson observations

^{(Adapted from TESSA Working With Teachers, section Whole).}

Taking the Whole School Approach

"A systematic and integrated approach to staff development, that focuses on the professional learning of teachers and establishes the classroom as an important centre for teacher development, is central to successful school improvement." Hopkins, Harris, Singleton and Watts (2000) Creating the conditions for teaching and learning. David Fulton Publishers. Used with permission.

Our materials (including the DfES Teaching and Learning Resources) are designed to be used in a variety of ways, for example by teachers collaborating in networks across schools; by groups within schools (subject or cross-subject teams); by pairs, as in peer coaching or coaching and mentoring; or even by individuals.

ASTs and other leading professionals can use them to support their work with colleagues.

The principles in the following table may be used to ensure that CPD can play an integral part of school improvement.

Principles of school improvement	Implications for CPD
Focus systematically on teaching and learning	The classroom should be the focus and the primary site for improving teaching and learning. CPD will involve both enquiry into and reflection on classroom practice, and opportunities to learn from good practice.
Base all improvement activity on evidence about relative performance	Professional development needs should be identified at three levels: school, team and personal. School and team development needs should be identified through whole- school review; personal needs should be identified through performance management.
Build collective ownership and develop leadership	CPD should draw in as many people as possible to build expertise across the school, enable individuals to both contribute and lead, and so make the success of whole- school initiatives more assured. Professional development arising out of school and team priorities places individual development in the context of whole-school improvement.
Involve collaboration with other organisations	Teachers should have regular opportunities for collaborative working (e.g. joint planning, team teaching, observation and feedback, coaching). Successful collaboration requires time for teachers to share their learning with colleagues. It may be necessary to go beyond the department or school to find suitable colleagues to work with.
Create time for staff to learn together	It is important to create opportunities, both internally and externally through links with other schools, for staff to learn with and from others. The value of informal learning as well as effective use of structured time should also be recognised.
Embed the improvements in the school’s systems and practices	The professional development system should be integrated with other planning and review cycles. Individual professional development should endeavour to meet whole-school, team and personal needs.

Many schools have improved by applying these principles and by paying particular attention to teaching and learning. Two key areas to think about are teaching and learning, and professional development of teachers. One way to focus on these factors is by developing and agreeing a teaching and learning policy across the whole school, or partnership of schools. This brings ownership and a sense of community to the school or partnership. It also means that across the whole school the same approach is used, so the pupils are comfortable and know what to expect. ^{(Adapted from Teaching Learning and Whole School Improvement, section Whole).}

Developing effective approaches to CPD

There has been much research, particularly in the past two decades, on the effectiveness of staff development. In particular, Joyce and Showers have shown that in order to really embed change in pedagogy, a number of elements are required. These are indicated in the table on the next page, where elements of training are related to impact in terms of long-term change.

	Level of impact
Training method	General awareness of a new approach	Understanding of how to implement the approaches in a new context	Internalising the new approach	Able to apply the new approach in a range of contexts
Presentation of the approach through workshop or reading	evidence
Modelling of the new approach by demonstration or video	evidence	evidence
Practice in non- threatening settings, e.g. simulated	evidence	evidence	evidence
Constructive feedback on performance	evidence	evidence	evidence	evidence
In-class support such as coaching by peer or expert	evidence	evidence	evidence	evidence

Adapted from Hopkins, Harris, Singleton and Watts (2000) Creating the conditions for teaching and learning. David Fulton Publishers. ISBN: 1853466891. Used with permission. ^{(Adapted from Teaching Learning Developing Approaches to CPD, section Whole).}

Digital Video for Professional Development

‘Good pedagogic practice’ is not a stable entity. What counts as good practice is contested, variable, irreducibly situated in a specific context.

Digital video footage does not show anything: it always has to be interpreted. But this is also the case with any other form of classroom observation: the observer never merely observes what is happening, because any act of observation is also an interpretation. The meanings that are attached to classroom observations depend on a number of variables:

the purposes of the observer;
the focus of the observation;
the observer’s knowledge of the contexts of these interactions;
as well as what happens in the classroom.

Observation provides an opportunity for the observer to render explicit the criteria as well as the values, assumptions and prior experiences that shape and inform the act of observation. Because observation necessarily involves interpretation, different observers will disagree about what they are observing. Student teachers will not see a lesson in the same way that experienced teachers and mentors will see it – and what a student teacher can see will change rapidly during the course of their education. ^{(Adapted from Using Digital Video in Professional Development, section CautionaryNote).}

Identifying Digital Video Clips of Good Pedagogic Practice

Why use digital video footage?

Teachers analyse and reflect on their own practice in order to improve learning and teaching. They seek to improve their practice through professional development including engaging with and contributing to the development of new knowledge and ideas.

In recent years the field of education has been characterised by innovation and change. Teachers use their experience and professional judgement to assess the benefits of adapting their practice through critical analysis of any innovative pedagogy, strategy or theory. In the context of new professionalism teachers find themselves increasingly both developing their skills as coaches and mentors, and benefiting from the coaching and mentoring that they receive.

Within this context, I want to suggest that the use of digital video footage of classroom interaction offers five main benefits:

1.1 It provides a window on other classrooms As teachers and teacher educators, we are always wrestling with the problem of particularity. We teach and we observe others teaching in very specific contexts – particular schools, particular classrooms, particular classes taught at particular moments of the school day. Digital video provides us with the chance to see inside other people’s classrooms, to learn from others’ practice, to make comparisons about teaching and learning across different sites. (Of course, the window of DV provides a particular perspective on these other classrooms: we don’t get to see everything, and what we do get to see has been framed in particular ways. I will say more about this later.)

1.2 It enables us to review what happens in the classroom Classroom interaction is evanescent: it happens in time, and then is gone. Digital video gives us a way of capturing the complexity of these myriad interactions as they unfold in any lesson, so that we can observe them again and again. DV footage provides a means for us to check our impressions against the evidence, to confirm or refine our judgements by looking again.

1.3 It brings a multimodal lens to the analysis of teaching and learning … classrooms are places where communication extends far beyond the modes of spoken and written language; they are multimodal sites, sites where meanings are made through many differing means, and where resources such as gesture, gaze, posture, and the deployment of visual objects are crucially important to meaning-making. … In other words, to understand English in its full dimensions, and to understand the ways in which it creates new kinds of identity for students and teachers, we regarded a multimodal approach as essential (Kress et al., 2005: 13-14).

In the classroom (as elsewhere), meanings are constructed and negotiated multimodally. Classroom interaction is embodied: how the furniture is arranged and what is displayed on the walls, where and how teachers and students stand or sit, their movements and gestures and facial expressions, as well as what they say and how they say it – all of these resources contribute to the semiotic work that is carried out in a lesson. Digital video enables us to attend to any and all of these modes as they are deployed in the classroom, to consider how each contributes to, or detracts from, or is in tension with, the pedagogic intentions of the lesson.

1.4 It encourages discussion about the criteria used to interpret and to judge When we carry out classroom observation, we don’t always see the same thing. We can reach different conclusions about what is going on. In real-time, in-the-flesh observation, however, it is rare (and problematic) for more than one or two people to observe the same lesson. Digital video footage enables large numbers of observers to see the same lesson. Hence, in sharing their analyses of what they have seen, the observers are obliged to render explicit what they bring to the act of observation: the assumptions they have made, the values that underpin their judgements, the criteria by which they are operating.

1.5 It can focus attention on the importance of other forms of evidence, other kinds of knowledge The most productive question to ask of a piece of DV footage is, What else do we need to know to make sense of this? Digital video allows us into other classrooms (though only virtually, and only in the two dimensions of the screen – it cannot place us there, ‘in the round’). And what it cannot provide is a historical perspective – a sense of how the interactions we see are products of the (shared and separate, individual and institutional) histories of the participants.

For example in Teaching Talking 2 (see below, [1]), we see a Year 8 student make a one-word contribution to a plenary. But the significance of this contribution cannot be understood from the video clip itself. It is the teacher, Kate, who provides the information that Paula, the student, is a newly-arrived beginner bilingual, a Portuguese-speaker who has never before contributed to whole-class talk in her English lesson. Knowing this history, we can begin to appreciate the utterance as an important moment in Paula’s development and as evidence of the effectiveness of the collaborative group work that had preceded the plenary. ^{(Adapted from Using Digital Video in Professional Development, section IdentifyingDVClips).}

How to use digital video footage

Some guiding principles:

A little goes a long way

Footage of what happens in a classroom is rich, dense material. Tiny fragments of lessons are worth analysing in detail. Concentrate on small episodes – generally only a few minutes is plenty.

2.2 A clear focus for the observation What do you want (student teachers) to look at?

Classroom management?
Pedagogy?
Language?
Gesture?
Orchestration of feedback?
The layout of the room?
Student interaction?
Evidence of learning?

2.3 What don’t we know? What can’t we see? Be explicit about the limitations of our knowledge about the data and about the limitations of the data themselves (see also Section 1.5).

2.4 What issues does this raise for your practice? What have the student teachers learnt?

Some possibilities…

Show the same footage more than once, with a different focus each time
Provide transcripts of the footage – either before or after showing – or (more arduous but worthwhile) ask student teachers to transcribe a brief episode themselves: suggest that they indicate facial expression, body posture and gesture as well as language, and note the different kinds of contributions made by individual pupils
Run the footage without sound
Allocate different foci to different observers, such as:
- selecting a particular pupil to watch during a sequence (so that a group of student teachers would be watching different pupils in a group);
- observing the teacher’s gestures as well as the language used;
- noting the board work/materials used (this would help in the discussion about differentiation);
- noting the questioning – both teacher’s and pupils’…

'… and some prompt questions that might help to guide observation The learning environment of the classroom

What do you notice about the classroom – about layout, displays, resources?
What evidence is there in the classroom about learning and the learners, about the subject, about values and relationships?

How does the teacher organise, shape and structure the lesson?

How does the teacher manage the class?
How do we know that the lesson has started?
How does the teacher explain the task(s)?
What do you notice about the teacher’s and students’ use of language in the opening stages of the lesson?
How are transitions from one activity to the next signalled and managed?
Is there any sign of resistance from the students? If so, how does the teacher react?
How is the lesson brought to an end? Is anything said about future lessons?

Language and learning

What are the students learning, and how?
What tells you that work has started – the nature and level of talk, the posture and physical attitudes of students, reading and writing activities?
What do you notice about the students’ language in different parts of the lesson?
What is language used for?

Differentiation

Is the learning the same for all students? If not, how is it different?
What has the teacher done to make the lesson accessible to all the students?
What resources assist in the process of differentiation?
What obstacles are there to participation and understanding?
Do you notice any differences in the ways in which different students understand and make sense of the lesson? ^{(Adapted from Using Digital Video in Professional Development, section HowToUseDV).}

Introduction to OER, Creative Commons, and Open Government Licence

The WikiEducator's OER Handbook http://wikieducator.org/OER_Handbook is an invaluable resource for exploring the use of Open Educational Resources. We have drawn on it here for our purposes (as marked below), but the interested reader may wish to delve more into the original resource.

Defining OER

The term "Open Educational Resource(s)" (OER) refers to educational resources (lesson plans, quizzes, syllabi, instructional modules, simulations, etc.) that are freely available for use, reuse, adaptation, and sharing. In contrast, Open Educational Practices (OEP) involve the processes that create an educational environment where OER are used as learning resources. OEP focuses on the approaches that are used to support the "demand side of education and not so much on the supply side" (OER) (Blackall & Hegarty, 2011). An openness to collaboration, sharing, networking and creating an online identity are some of the characteristics required to practice in this environment.

The term "open educational resources" was first used in July 2002 during a UNESCO workshop on open courseware in developing countries (Johnstone, 2005). Most definitions of the term include content, software tools, licenses, and best practices. OER is a burgeoning field of practice and exploration as evidenced by the growing number of research studies including the OECD (2007), OLCOS (2007), and Hewlett Foundation (Atkins, Brown and Hammond, 2007) reports. There is an emerging research community gaining momentum and focusing on investigating the impact of OER on learning and the education environment. {{{3}}} ^{(Adapted from [[2]], section whole).}

Why OER

With OER you are free to

Reuse - Use the work verbatim (unaltered), without having to ask
Revise - Alter or transform the work to meet your
Remix - Combine the (verbatim or altered) work with other works for enhanced
Redistribute - Share the verbatim, reworked, or remixed work with others.

(Wiley, 2007) ^{(Adapted from Wikieducator, section DefiningOER).}

Creative Commons and Open Government Licence

Many OER are have a Creative Commons licence. There are a number of variants of 'CC' licences, but crucially all the free distribution of the licensed work without needing to seek permissions (in most cases, as long as attribution to the source is maintained). Some licences do not allow 'remixing' or 'revising' and are thus less suitable for OER, but in most OER a more flexible licence which allows 'derivatives' is assigned, leaving the user free to modify the resource as they wish. See the Creative Commons website for more detail http://creativecommons.org/about.

The Open Government Licence is a UK inititiatve to licence all Crown Copyright (and other Governmental) works under a licence similar to the Creative Commons licence (available http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/ ). In addition, most materials in the National Archives are now under an OGL licence, meaning they may be remixed, and reused - as we have done in many places on this wiki.

Adapting and Sharing our Resources

How can you deepen your engagement with the ORBIT community and others involved in working with teachers in an open educational resource (OER) environment?

The ORBIT materials are OERs. This means that they can be freely shared, adapted and used by anyone.

You might start with the community closest to you – in your own context. If you are a teacher educator working in a college or university, these questions might help

To what extent do teacher educators at my institution work together?
How could I benefit from increasing this collaboration?
Am I personally prepared to put the effort into working together?
How can I start a conversation about how to do this?

Teacher development may start in an institution, but schools and communities are involved as well.

How can you share your ORBIT experiences with others who work with teachers in schools and in your local community?

You could use the following steps for selecting and preparing to use ORBIT activities in the curriculum

Select an appropriate theme or teaching approach that you’ve identified as needing attention, or which is on your curriculum/scheme of work for the next few weeks – this might be one which you find particularly challenging to teach, one which your learners have struggled with or a new way of teaching that you want to try out.
Locate and review relevant ORBIT materials to identify suitable sections which match your chosen theme, topic or skill.
Ask yourself what you as a teacher have planned to achieve through teaching your theme and topic.
Read the ORBIT activities and related case studies and resources.
Select the relevant ORBIT activities or case studies that match what you planned to achieve. Find the resources you need.
Adapt the ORBIT activities to suit your pupils and your surroundings

You should consider the prior knowledge and experiences either of the teachers, or the pupils they’re working with. ^{(Adapted from TESSA Working With Teachers, section SharingPractice).}

Copyright

How to Stay Within the Law

Everyone has favourite websites they use to find information. When you use these sources to find useful-looking material, apart from making sure that it is of good quality, you also need to take account of the conditions surrounding its use. Simply being on the web does not make something freely available to use in all circumstances. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR), of which copyright is just one part (along with Patents, Designs and Trademarks) protect the creators of ideas. Materials that are in some way ‘fixed’ like text, music, pictures, sound recordings and web pages, are protected by the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and may often have an accompanying symbol (©) and/or legal statement.

In most circumstances, works protected by copyright can only be used – and ‘used’ can mean copied, scanned, distributed, stored, adapted, broadcasted or shown - in whole or in part with the permission of the owner. You are personally responsible if you use material without having the necessary permissions and could face prosecution and a hefty fine. You also have a moral duty to act as a good role model to the students in your care in order to help them recognise the importance of keeping legal.

In some cases, obtaining this permission results in a fee being charged and obtaining permission can be time consuming. Our focus within this course is on identifying resources that you can use free of charge and don’t need to seek further permission to use. However, in order to be able to do that you need to know a little more about copyright. ^{(Adapted from Copyright: keep it legal/Resource, section CopyrightWithinTheLaw).}

Look at these examples of material, which are readily available on the web. For each item note down answers to the following question

What copyright information can you find out about it?
What can you ‘do’, legally, with this information, in terms of re-using it?

Like printed materials or works of art, everything published on the web is protected by copyright, even if it looks as if it is ‘free’ information. The rules on copyright, which are already complicated, become more complex in an online world, because it is so easy to copy and transfer electronic information to other people.

The bottom line on copyright is that anything you find on the web, whether text, an image, video clip or piece of audio, ‘belongs’ to someone else, and you should check the copyright statement if there is one, to ascertain what you can legally do with the material. ^{(Adapted from Copyright: keep it legal/Resource, section CopyrightPractical).}

Unpicking copyright

The objective of this section is to explore some of the legal guidance around copyright, and the exceptions to copyright rules.

There are exceptions to the copyright rules which allow you to do a little more with material you find within your teaching than in other contexts.

Read Intellectual Property Office guidance on permitted uses of copyrights works and advice for educational establishments. Note down any exceptions that might legally enable you to use material in your teaching without having to get permission first.

Now imagine you want to use this image of The Great Wall of China in your teaching. Drawing on your notes, come to an agreement in the course forum about the point at which using this material becomes illegal. Could you

Show it to your students using the classroom whiteboard?
Make paper copies of it and distribute it to pupils during a classroom exercise?
Crop it, so that it fits nicely into the school newsletter or website?

Creative Commons

Using material you find on the web has been made easier in recent years through Creative Commons, which provides a system of licensing to enable people to share and re-use information easily.

Play this video from Creative Commons for a brief introduction.

A shared culture

Now look at the Creative Commons licenses, note the increasing degrees of protection they offer for the creators of material, and also what constitutes ‘use’. Note down which of the licenses are the most useful, from your point of view.

Discussion Creative Commons extends and works alongside copyright to enable people to share their work. This works well for us as consumers of information because it expands the amount of information available for us to re-use.

Creative Commons: using Flickr Flickr is a site for sharing photographs. The advanced search options in Flickr enable you to search within Creative Commons licensed content. You can restrict your search according to what you ultimately want to do with what you find. For example, you can search just for images that you can edit. This is a quick and easy way to ensure that you find material quickly which suits your purpose.

Go to the Flickr website.
Type ‘digital native’ in the search box. Note down the number of results you get. Click on some of the images, and look under ‘Additional information’ (on the right hand side of the screen to see the licence information, which details what you can legally ‘do’ with the material.
Now try an ‘Advanced Search’. If you are viewing an individual photograph, you can get to Advanced search by clicking on ‘Search’.

If you are looking at the thumbnails of your search results, the Advanced Search option should be at the top of the screen. Scroll down the Advanced Search screen to find the Creative Commons options. Select the tick box called ‘Only search within Creative Commons licensed content’.

Do the same search on ‘digital native’. How many items did you find this time? What you can ‘do’ with this material?

Discussion When we did this search, there was a significant difference in the number of hits and what we were able to ‘do’ with the content we found. Restricting the search to only those items licensed under Creative Commons reduced the number of hits from 7000+ to around 1000, and what we could do with the material found was much less restrictive. However, you do need to be careful because of the different sort of Creative Commons licences, most of which do require that you give appropriate attribution for the images you use (e.g. if you are including an image in a presentation you may also have to include the url where you found the image).

Creative Commons: using Google Like Flickr, Google’s advanced search options enable you to filter your results according to what you ultimately want to do with what you find.

Go to the Google Images website.
Search for material on a topic of your choosing. Write down the search term that you are going to use.
Now select ‘Advanced search’. Under ‘Usage rights’, note the range of options in the drop-down menu for restricting your search.
Carry out the same search (using the same search term) but restricting it to items ‘labeled for reuse’.

Click on a few of the items to look at what you can do with the material.

Discussion Searching in this way is a good idea in two respects – it reduces the number of items you have to deal with and ensures that you get material which you can reuse. For example, when we did this search, using the word ‘fish’, and restricting the results to those ‘labeled for reuse’, we were able to reduce the hits on Google images from over 104 million to a more much manageable 500.

Reviewing your sources When looking for material to use in the classroom, using ‘reliable, high quality’ sites to start with can take some of the guesswork out of finding resources that can be re-used legally. The objective of this course activity is to revisit the sites you normally use, and review them to see whether they are good sources of legal-to-use information.

Go to the sites that you normally use as sources of material. Note down any information about the copyright associated with those sites. To what extent can you legally use material from them? ^{(Adapted from Copyright: keep it legal/Resource, section CopyrightPractical).}

Wikis

Learners often need space to share ideas and/or resources, to write together. This section looks at the use of a ‘wiki’ (a website which can be added to and edited by any number of people) for these purposes.

So what is a wiki? A wiki is a website for sharing and developing ideas, materials, plans etc. Any page of the website can be changed by anyone (sometimes usernames and passwords are needed, sometimes edits can be anonymous). Only one person can edit any one page at one time but as soon as they have finished and saved, anyone else can then edit it.

Exploring Wikis Wikis are gaining popularity with teachers who recognise its power as a creative and collaborative tool. Teachers are exploring ways of integrating them into their teaching and learning. Some are sharing examples of pupil work, others are encouraging pupils to contribute to a class wiki.

Wikis are already being used extensively in education, though often for reading rather than writing. Wikipedia is often used as a source of information, for example, and has a specific schools section organised by the subjects of the National Curriculum.

You might like to look at some existing wikis that are used for learning and teaching and share thoughts about how they are being used.

Table 2

Key stage	Curriculum	What's this wiki about?
1	Maths	'Primary Math' has been set up to enable students in Canada to share their maths learning with classes around the world. Students have uploaded images of patterns, numbers and shapes etc
2	English	'Terry the Tennis Ball' is a collaborative story developed by students at a primary school in Australia.
2	Science	'Sound and Light', a wiki by students, for students, based in the UK. There are examples of student work using a range of media from photos through to audio and video files.
1-2	English	'And to think I saw it on my way to school' is a wiki developed by a cluster of schools in America inspired by a Dr Seuss book. There are examples of student work using a range of publishing tools.

Wiki Structure Thinking about structure
Wikis, like any other website can have different structures to suit different contexts. These range from a single web page to a series of linked web pages both of which can be edited by individuals or groups of people.

The structure of any wiki used in a learning context may well be derived from the way in which learning is structured in classrooms with groups and tasks represented by different wiki pages. On the other hand the use of a wiki allows for learning and sharing to go on over time, not constrained by ‘the lesson or session’, and to go on over space not constrained by the physical buildings.

The structure of any wiki used in a learning context may well be derived from the way in which learning is structured in classrooms – using groups and tasks to be represented on pages for example. On the other hand the use of a wiki allows for learning and sharing to go on over time, not constrained by ‘the lesson or session’, and to go on over space not strained by the physical buildings.

Figure 1 Hierarchical, with a main menu page, all can edit any page. Pages maybe organised by activity, topic etc.

Figure 2 Matrix, all pages link to each other, anyone can edit all pages. Maybe one page per activity, topic etc.

Figure 3 Groups, with a menu page, only those in the group can edit the group’s pages

Figure 4 Groups, with a menu page, only those in the group can edit the group’s pages. Individual pupils in their groups have their own pages, with perhaps some where only a single pupil can edit.

By looking at other examples of wikis and seeing what other people are doing and thinking about how to use wikis, you will be able to generate ideas about how you might structure and use a wiki to suit your own context.

Further Reading You might like to look at these further resources

‘Collaborative learning the wiki way’ Engström and Jewett (2005) - available
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‘The potential of wikis in the classroom’ Fountain (2005) - available File:The potential of wikis in the classroom.doc
‘The good, the bad and the wiki’ Wheeler, Yeomans and Wheeler (2008) - available File:The good, the bad and the wiki.doc
‘A five stage model for the use of a wiki’ Wheeler (2008) - available File:A five stage model for the use of a wiki.doc.

You might also want to explore the VITAL resources on wikis. ^{(Adapted from Sharing ideas - developing wikis (primary)/Resource, section Whole).}

In 2008, Becta published the results of a study of the use of Web 2.0 tools in Key Stage 3 and 4 classrooms. You can access this report , or in editable (.doc) format File:Becta report.doc. This is a lengthy report covering all aspects of Web 2.0 tools (including social networking and blogging) but there are some sections that focus on the use of wikis.Go to page 20 of the report for statistics relating to teacher perceptions of wikis and experiences of their use in the classroom. Reflect on the final bullet point that relates to use of wikis and their management. Think about whether wiki management could be an issue for you and your learners and how you might deal with this, for example, creating wikis for smaller groups and introducing a code of conduct. Add to your notes from the previous activities any further thoughts arising from your reading.

Go to page 34 and read the section that considers the issues of private versus collaborative learning. An important point is made here about some learners who prefer their own private space for learning and therefore find it difficult to engage in collaborative activities. Reflect on whether any of your learners may have this preference and could find collaboration through a wiki to be difficult. Could you encourage such learners to become involved by careful selection of a small group of students to work on a wiki-based activity? Again, add any thoughts you have to your notes. ^{(Adapted from Learning together introducing wikis/Resource, section BECTA).}

Chapter 1 - Assessment

Teaching Approaches

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Readers working in Intial Teacher Education (ITE), or students engaged on ITE course may find it useful to read the Assessment Overview, which is targeted at ITE providers.

Assessment may take many forms, including whole class, and individual. Readers should consider reading widely, in particular with reference to Dialogic Approaches in addition to the guidance given below. Where appropriate links have been incorporated - if you are a wiki-contributor, please do add further internal links, and if of high quality (especially CC licenced), external too.

What is effective assessment?

Assessment for learning

The notion of 'assessment' is often bound up with ideas regarding examinations, accreditation, perhaps even accountability (e.g. OFSTED, league tables, performance management and so on). However, for some time there has been a growing discussion regarding 'Assessment for Learning' (AfL), or formative assessment. This form of assessment stands in contrast to summative assessment, which is understood to be the form of assessment most often conducted at the end of the unit, which is supposed to represent the understanding of that unit's content at that point in time. Assessment for Learning, in contrast, is targeted at assessing understanding throughout teaching, helping students to understand what stage they are at, and how they might improve. AfL thus involves assessment to provide feedback for improving learning.

AfL thus

is embedded in a view of teaching and learning of which it is an essential part. Assessment for learning is not something extra or ‘bolted on’ that a teacher has to do. Pupil learning is the principal aim of schools and assessment for learning aims to provide pupils with the skills and strategies for taking the next steps in their learning;
involves sharing learning goals with pupils. If pupils understand the main purposes of their learning and what they are aiming for, they are more likely to grasp what they need to do to achieve it;
aims to help pupils to know and recognise the standards that they are aiming for. Learners need to be clear about exactly what they have to achieve in order to progress. They should have access to the criteria that will be used to judge this, and be shown examples or models where other learners have been successful. Pupils need to understand what counts as ‘good work’;
involves pupils in peer and self-assessment. Ultimately, learners must be responsible for their own learning; the teacher cannot do that for them. So pupils must be actively involved in the process and need to be encouraged to see for themselves how they have progressed in their learning and what it is they need to do to improve. Teachers need to encourage pupils to review their work critically and constructively;
provides feedback, which leads to pupils recognising their next steps and how to take them. Feedback should be about the qualities of the work with specific advice on what needs to be done in order to improve. Pupils need to be given the time to act on advice and make decisions about their work, rather than being the passive recipients of teachers’ judgements;
involves both teacher and pupil in reviewing and reflecting on assessment data (information). Pupils need to have opportunities to communicate their evolving understanding and to act on the feedback they are given. The interaction between teacher and pupil is an important element of developing understanding and promoting learning;
is underpinned by confidence that every student can improve. Poor feedback can lead to pupils believing that they lack ‘ability’ and are not able to learn. Pupils will only invest effort in a task if they believe they can achieve something. The expectation in the classroom needs to be that every pupil can make progress in his or her learning.

Based on: Assessment Reform Group (1999) Assessment for learning: beyond the black box. University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education. ISBN: 0856030422. ^{(Adapted from Assessment for Learning Introduction, section What).}

Readers should also refer to Assessment for Learning Research Summary and the references contained therein.

How might we use AfL

The following table suggests some teaching strategies that will support the development of assessment for learning in your classroom.

Key characteristics of assessment for learning	Teaching strategies
Sharing learning objectives with pupils	share learning objectives at the beginning of the lesson and, where appropriate, during the lesson, in language that pupils can understand use these objectives as the basis for questioning and feedback during plenaries evaluate this feedback in relation to achievement of the learning objectives to inform the next stages of planning
Helping pupils to know and recognise the standards they are aiming for	show pupils work that has met criteria with explanations of why give pupils clear success criteria and then relate them to the learning objectives model what it should look like, for example exemplify good writing on the board ensure that there are clear shared expectations about the presentation of work provide displays of pupils’ work which show work in progress as well as finished product
Involving pupils in peer and self-assessment	give pupils clear opportunities to talk about what they have learned and what they have found difficult, using the learning objectives as a focus encourage pupils to work/discuss together, focusing on how to improve ask pupils to explain their thinking: ‘How did you get that answer?’ give time for pupils to reflect upon their learning identify with pupils the next steps in learning
Providing feedback that leads pupils to recognising their next steps and how to take them	value oral as well as written feedback ensure feedback is constructive as well as positive, identifying what the pupil has done well, what needs to be done to improve and how to do it identify the next steps for groups and individuals as appropriate
Promoting confidence that every pupil can improve	identify small steps to enable pupils to see their progress, thus building confidence and self-esteem encourage pupils to explain their thinking and reasoning within a secure classroom ethos
Involving both teacher and pupil in reviewing and reflecting on assessment information	reflect with pupils on their work, for example through a storyboard of steps taken during an investigation choose appropriate tasks to provide quality information (with emphasis on process, not just the correct answer) provide time for pupils to reflect on what they have learned and understood, and to identify where they still have difficulties adjust planning, evaluate effectiveness of task, resources, etc. as a result of assessment

^{(Adapted from Assessment for Learning Introduction, section How).}

High Quality Questioning and Dialogue

A key component of AfL is the use of high quality questioning. For guidance in this area readers should refer to the general guidance Questioning Research Summary, and the more practical document on Types Of Question, as well as the resources under the.

With respect to assessment, should specifically note that closed questions, for which pupils may offer (and receive feedback affirming) only one correct answer, are likely to provide limited opportunities for developing understanding of key concepts. It is important to develop questioning techniques which engage higher levels of reasoning, and dialogue. Fundamentally dialoguethat includes students in the sequencing of content - as a cumulative enterprise - may be important, particularly if they are to move from tuition to self-monitoring behaviours. Blanchard suggests that, in fact, the original AfL construction might be revised to incorporate a better understanding of sequencing in the classroom, "The spirit of AfL is instantiated in the way teachers conceptualise and sequence the tasks undertaken by pupils in the lesson…. Formative assessment includes both feedback and self-monitoring. The goal of many instructional systems is to facilitate the transition from feedback to self-monitoring…. Classroom learning […] depends on learners having some understanding of how and why tasks are designed and ordered as they are […]. Dialogue is the medium: dialogue about activity that has yet to start, that is ongoing, and that has been brought to a close." Blanchard (2008, p.145)

Effective Group Work

In whole class contexts high quality dialogue is likely to be bound up with questioning techniques. However, in smaller group activities it is unlikely that the sequence of learning will involve direct questioning from teachers for much of the time. However, group work may still be effective for raising standards for all. Readers should refer to the section on Collaboration and Group Talk for further discussion in this area. A key concern which is often raised with relation to group work and assessment is that it does not stretch the most able, or assist the weakest appropriately. However, research indicates that this is not the case. In particular it has been pointed out (for example by Bob Slavin) that effectively orchestrated group work should make the activity's objective the learning of each member of the group. That is, groups should not be credited for each member being able to parrot the correct answer, or for the group (as a collective) to 'have' the correct answer; groups should be credited only for each member of the group being able to adequately give and explain the correct answer. In creating such an objective, group work encourages stronger students to teach weaker students - which is a stretching task in itself - and maintains ownership of learning.

Group Talk - a Method for Assessment?

Thus in the context of group work, group talk can be understood to have a number of benefits for assessment Why do it? What are the benefits to the learner?

Higher-level thinking Pupils are challenged to defend, review and modify their ideas with their peers. It encourages reflection and metacognition (thinking about one’s own thinking). Pupils often communicate ideas better with other pupils than with teachers.
Assessment for learning Effectively reveals the progress of the pupil to the teacher, encouraging the pupil to self- and peer-assess while allowing the teacher to plan more effectively. As such, group talk complements methods embraced as Assessment for learning.
Illustrating science in action Working scientists use group talk – in class it models how they work, supporting the teaching of the ‘ideas and evidence’ aspects of scientific enquiry.
Developing the whole child The ability to resolve disagreements is a life-skill. Pupils become more reflective as they try to arrive at a consensus by expressing different points of view; or work collaboratively to explore ideas, plan and make decisions. Further, it supports the development of literacy.
Pupil motivation and emotional involvement When argument is taking place, and pupils are actively prompted and provoked to defend a point of view – by the teacher and by others – it raises the emotional involvement in a topic, so that pupils are more engaged. In essence, they are being encouraged to ‘care’ about the science viewpoint they have, and to take a stand for or against it, even if they concede to others along the way. These features are more common in good English, RE and humanities lessons.
Variety and learning styles Can be used as an alternative to written or practical work (for example, experiments), or just listening as the teacher explains and demonstrates. Group talk encourages the use of different learning styles and thus can be inclusive to pupils excluded from more traditional (and often written) activities. ^{(Adapted from Group Talk - Benefits for Science Teaching, section Why).}

Use of ICT

Assessment is one area where ICT has had significant impact. This impact has not always been strongly pedagogic in nature; Dylan Wiliam and Paul Black have raised concerns that the use of some ICT has detracted from the aims of AfL in favour of highly granular, summative forms of assessment which are fed into computer systems, monitored, and analysed using statistical approaches not appropriate to their level of data. Readers should refer to the section on Tools for some ideas on how to integrate Technology into the classroom.

Whole Class Technologies

However, where used effectively ICT can provide useful support for AfL both in and out of the classroom. Interactive White Boards (IWB), for example, provide useful visuals for Whole Class dialogue and questioning. Significantly, IWB screens can also be recorded for future use, allowing a shared space (or 'improvable object') for dialogic talk which encourages children to understand the cumulative nature of learning. A Cambridge project (http://dialogueiwb.educ.cam.ac.uk/) explored this topic in more detail, and the website provides some detail on 'Using the IWB to Support Classroom Dialogue'.

Automated feedback

One way in which ICT may be effectively used to support assessment is in the use of automated feedback systems. These are typically for shorter (closed) questions, although some feedback can be automated for longer sorts of question. Feedback systems can provide a range of response types, some of which may encourage pupils to think about how their answers were come to, or why they might be wrong (or right). These systems may also be useful for 'diagnostic questions' - questions for which wrong answers may indicate a particular sort of distinguishable confusion to be addressed.

Many Virtual Learning Environments have powerful feedback functions built in to them, and there are a range of other tools which may be useful and go beyond such inbuilt features. Even if feedback is not automated, technology can support 'drag and drop' commenting, and maintaining a record of such work over time, which may form a useful point of discussion with students.

Quizzes and Clickers

Quizzes are, of course, an obvious way to provide automated feedback. These may also be setup for 'in class' use via clickers, other similar devices, or mobile phones (and of course, mini-whiteboards). The advantage in this context is the ability to use responses to orchestrate dialogue around the whole class response system, and to extend the learning beyond the type of 'closed question' system which can be common in online multiple choice quizzes.

Collaboration

Some tools may also provide for such dialogue online in the context of quizzes and other activities such as shared extended writing. A number of tools (e.g. Google Docs) provide chat functions alongside document areas, while others allow collaborative authoring in different ways (e.g. wikis, see for example [article] on the Thinking Together approach and the use of wikis).

Such tools may be used for a range of activities, including multimedia creation, question and answer forums, and collaborative writing activities - on which more below.

Collaborative tools for orchestrating dialogue

Some research has explored the use of collaborative tools for structuring and orchestrating dialogue (on and offline) in constructive ways. The [project] is exploring some possibilities here with respect to dialogic talk. The [Building] approach has also used software (paid) to engage students in structuring their claims collaboratively to construct new knowledge. Teachers may find that any resources which aid in 'argument mapping' and constructive turn taking (e.g. concept mapping software such as [[4]] or many 'forum' based interfaces which may be preinstalled on a VLE).

Assessment for Learning and Writing

Assessment is often focussed on written assignments. While understanding the concepts one is writing about is important in this process, there are also specific skills related to conveying understanding and meeting assessment criteria in written forms. Since writing involves the integration of several processes, re-reading to revise is important (Norwood, Hayes and Flower 1980). Chanquoy (2001) shows the positive effect of returning to writing after the event. The time delay seems to help, but the techniques for revising need to be explicitly taught, that is modelled by the teacher. Glynn et al. (1989), behavioural psychologists researching in New Zealand classrooms, found considerable evidence that positive oral feedback has an impact on both motivation and the amount written. This was found to be more significant when errors were selectively targeted and when pupils were involved in error correction and praised for this. The research suggests that teachers’ comments should be organisational, encouraging, constructive, challenging and push pupils’ thinking. The work of Black and Wiliam (1998) and Black et al. (2002) looks at formative assessment and its relationship to raising standards in pupils’ learning. They comment that effective feedback needs to make explicit to pupils what is involved in producing high-quality writing and what steps are needed for improvement. They suggest that pupils should be actively engaged in the thinking and discussion involved. ^{(Adapted from Improving Writing - Research Summary, section Assessment).} For further guidance on Improving Writing, refer to the document Improving Writing - Research Summary. Teachers should consider taking a range of approaches to assessing writing, and working with pupils to assess each other's writing.

Assessment for Learning and Reading

Over the last decade we have become increasingly aware of the importance of metacognition in learning to read (Baker and Brown 1984). One of the characteristics distinguishing younger readers from older readers, and poorer readers from fluent readers, is that younger and poorer readers often do not recognise when they have not understood a text (Garner and Reis 1981); that is, there is evidence that they are not actively aware of their own level of understanding and are therefore not able to make an autonomous decision to use a strategy to enhance their understanding. Other readers show a greater awareness of their own level of understanding for they will stop when a text does not make sense to them. Some will then go on to select from their range of strategies that which might help overcome their problem.

In shared and guided reading sessions we can model for pupils how fluent readers monitor their understanding and use strategies to clarify their own understanding. These may range from semantic strategies to work out a troublesome word to sophisticated reflections on whether the meaning is deliberately obscure (as in a mystery) or perhaps challenging the author/text because the reader thinks they are incorrect. Such teacher modelling is an important part of the learning opportunities within reading sessions. ^{(Adapted from Improving Reading - Research Summary, section Assessment).}. For further guidance on Improving Reading, refer to the document Improving Reading - Research Summary.

Teacher Education Resources

Developing good practice in giving oral feedback

Lesson idea. The resource comprises one 3 page DfES document (drawn from a larger document - see related resources). It gives some examples of oral feedback in particular in assessment^(ta) contexts and some activities for teachers to explore effective feedback.

Resource details
Title	Giving Oral Feedback
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the document you should have considered some strategies for giving effective oral feedback in your own practice.
Format / structure	.doc
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	See other DfE⁽ⁱ⁾ resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:Effective Oral Feedback.doc or the WikiText version here
Acknowledgement
License

This resource is part of the DfES resource "Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in secondary schools" (ref: 0423-2004G) which can be downloaded from the National Archives http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809101133/nsonline.org.uk/node/97131 The whole resource (512 pages) can be downloaded as a pdf File:Pedagogy and Practice DfES.pdf
The resource booklets, and many 'harvested' documents are available to download, generally in editable formats from the ORBIT resources, see Category:DfE.
The videos from the accompanying DVDs are available: Video/Pedpack1 and Video/Pedpack2

Effective methods for written feedback

Lesson idea. The resource comprises one 3 page DfES document (drawn from a larger document - see related resources). It highlights a range of techniques for effective written feedback, and includes an activity to explore some example pieces of feedback, and another which focuses on teacher's own practice.

Resource details
Title	Giving Written Feedback
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the document you should have considered some ways to explore effective written feedback in your own practice.
Format / structure	.doc
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	See other DfE⁽ⁱ⁾ resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:Giving Written Feedback.doc or available as WikiText here
Acknowledgement
License

This resource is part of the DfES resource "Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in secondary schools" (ref: 0423-2004G) which can be downloaded from the National Archives http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809101133/nsonline.org.uk/node/97131 The whole resource (512 pages) can be downloaded as a pdf File:Pedagogy and Practice DfES.pdf
The resource booklets, and many 'harvested' documents are available to download, generally in editable formats from the ORBIT resources, see Category:DfE.
The videos from the accompanying DVDs are available: Video/Pedpack1 and Video/Pedpack2

Practical Classroom Activities

A large set of questions grouped by topic, paper, and national curriculum level

Lesson idea. A set of exemplar resources ready for use on a classroom whiteboard or on screen. Each resource includes two PowerPoint slides, the first is for the teacher to view before the lesson. It shows a question; its level; the topics it covers and suggestions for changes that might be made. The second (and more) shows the question for the students. This large collection of questions can be used as lesson-starter activities or can run for a full lesson.

Resource details
Title	Changing KS3 Questions for Engaging Assessment
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Using an existing resource to deepen understanding in interesting and creative ways.
Format / structure	Files are provided as individual .ppt slide presentations and bundled together as a zip file. The original SATs 2007's test papers are also available to download from the 2007 Maths SATs Papers page.
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information	Questions have been modified under Open Government licence (see below).
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	How to use this resource, and the files for download are described at Changing Questions Description. The questions can be downloaded as zip bundles or as individual PowerPoint files from: Algebra & Number, paper 1 (non-calculator) Algebra & Number, paper 2 (calculator) Geometry & Measure, paper 1 (non-calculator) Geometry & Measure, paper 2 (calculator) Statistics, paper 1 (non-calculator) Statistics, paper 2 (calculator)
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources contributed by Mark Dawes
License

These files feature content from the 2007 Maths SATs Papers (without the mental arithmetic component).
The original questions have been modified by Mark Dawes to include teacher notes.
Attribution to the files should refer to the Powerpoint files stored and licenced here on the ORBIT website.

Chapter 2 - Inclusion and Differentiation

Teaching Approaches

>>>

Inclusive Learning Design Handbook

You might like to explore the resources in the FLOE (flexible learning for open education) Project's Inclusive Learning Design Handbook here - another OER resource.

This resource is licenced under an Open Government Licence (OGL).

This resource is adapted from the 2008 National Strategies: Secondary 'Framework for secondary maths'. The resource is available in format, and editable (File:Inclusive Teaching in maths.doc) format. It can also be downloaded from the National Archives [[5]].

Inclusive teaching in mathematics

Introduction

Your vision for planning and teaching will apply to all classes and groups of pupils, and to each individual pupil. Only occasionally are the needs of individual pupils or groups of pupils so distinct that entirely different approaches are needed in order to help them learn mathematics and engage fully in lessons. In these instances, specialist guidance more detailed than that given in this short introduction will be needed.

In the main, you will adapt existing planning and teaching principles in order to include all pupils. This section responds to two considerations about planning and teaching mathematics:

What is the best way to support the mathematical progress of pupils who have particular needs? For example, pupils learning English as an additional language or those with special educational needs, learning difficulties or disabilities.

What are the most effective actions to take if any individual pupil or groups of pupils are not making expected progress?

In most cases the suggestions on the following pages involve adjusting existing practice rather than doing something new. For example:

If you believe that pupils need to work together and to talk about their mathematics, the task is now to facilitate this collaboration more strategically for a pupil with emotional difficulties or a pupil who is not yet fluent in English.
If you are working to develop a more open questioning style which allows pupils time to think, the task is now to choose questions so that pupils with misconceptions have them revealed and addressed.

The guidance that follows is based on strategies which have been tried and tested in the classroom. Each section includes references to further Strategy resources which will provide more background detail and more practical support.

You will notice that all entries in this section recommend keeping expectations high. Where expectations are high and teaching reflects this, most pupils, whatever their starting point, can aim for two levels of progress during Key Stage 3. For example

design lessons so that all pupils are included in ways that enhance their progress (see below)
aim to keep an accurate picture of pupils’ progress towards their targets (see ‘Assessment and target-setting’)
when underperformance is identified, make a swift and strategic response (see Intervention in mathematics).

A fair ‘rule of thumb’ is to

know the pupils well
What can they already do mathematically?
What helps them learn effectively?
know the mathematics well
What is needed to tackle the tasks?
What connections can be made?
What is this leading to?
respond to the learning
How effective is the learning in these lessons?
Is the pace appropriate?

Pupils with English as an additional language (EAL)

EAL pupils may need support to develop language and to access the mathematics curriculum. It is easy to underestimate what pupils can do mathematically simply because they are new learners of English. Planning, teaching and learning for pupils learning EAL should be underpinned by the following key principles

Bilingualism is an asset and the first language has a continuing and significant role in identity, learning and the acquisition of additional languages.
Cognitive challenge can and should be kept appropriately high through the provision of linguistic and contextual support.
Language acquisition goes hand-in-hand with cognitive and academic development, with an inclusive curriculum as the context.

Planning for EAL learners is most effective when

it is part of the planning process of the whole department and is embedded in the usual planning format
it takes account of the prior learning of the pupils, whether in the UK or abroad
the role of additional adults with EAL expertise and/or bilingual or multilingual skills is clearly indicated and they are either involved in the planning process or have plans shared with them at the earliest opportunity
contexts for learning are relevant, motivating and culturally inclusive
it takes account of the language demands of the curriculum, including the use of subject- specific vocabulary where words have specific meanings in mathematics that are different from their ordinary use (e.g. mean, power, root) and grammatical complexities such as comparatives, conditionals and connectives
it provides opportunities for speaking and listening, collaborative work and other strategies for language development
consideration is given to the language of the task, how the pupils are grouped, and use of first language for learning.

Aim for EAL learners to hear good models of language from peers and adults as a regular feature of mathematics lessons. They are more likely to make progress in their learning when working alongside peers with simlar cognitive ability and greater linguistic proficiency. Use cooperative small group work so that EAL pupils work collaboratively with more expert speakers of English as well as pupils who share their first language.

Language learning styles vary and some pupils will not want to speak until they feel confident that they can produce an accurate and complete utterance. A silent period, where pupils are learning receptively by listening, is a natural stage that many early-stage learners of EAL go through.

Adapt your questioning so that EAL learners feel included and are encouraged to contribute orally when they are ready to do so.

Acquisition of academic language will usually take considerably longer to develop than social language. Try not to compromise on the cognitive challenge in the mathematics and use bilingual approaches strategically; for example, pupils’ understanding can be supported by exposing and discussing common misconceptions using the first language.

You will need to think carefully about how to build on the knowledge EAL pupils bring to a sequence of lessons. Encourage other pupils and teaching assistants to provide a listening focus by using additional props and prompts as they explain and discuss during lessons. Try to model this in your whole class work by using images and models, making appropriate use of ICT where possible. Offer further support by providing note-taking frameworks and pre-teach specific vocabulary.

When pupils arrive in school, their prior knowledge of mathematics must be assessed across a range of strands of mathematics and a range of levels. Assessments can use either English or a language with which the pupil is familiar. It is helpful if someone from the mathematics

department is involved in the assessment. Bear in mind that some pupils will find questions set in context more difficult to interpret, so provide a range of question types. Assessment activities should be as practical as possible and be modelled for the pupil. The ease and confidence with which they approach or carry out the task from the cues given will be crucial elements affecting the judgment you reach. This is not a ‘test’; it is Assessment for learning and should result in both teacher and pupil having a sense of what needs to happen next to support learning.

A culturally diverse cohort provides an opportunity for mathematics teaching and learning. The National Curriculum emphasises the importance of the history of mathematics and the mathematics of different cultures. Much of algebra and trigonometry owe their origins to Arab mathematicians. Pascal’s triangle appears in Chinese mathematics some 300 years before Pascal was born. There are many games and puzzles from Africa, China and India which can be used to explore mathematical reasoning. Pupils will also bring a range of cultural perspectives and experiences to the classroom, which can be reflected in the curriculum and used to further the pupils' understanding of the importance of the issues of diversity. This also enables pupils’ cultures to be valued.

‘The nature and severity of the cognition and learning needs of pupils learning English as an additional language are easily underestimated or overestimated. The identification and assessment of the special educational needs of children whose first language is not English requires particular care. It is necessary to consider the child within the context of their home, culture and community.’ SEN Code of Practice 2001 5.15

Pupils with special educational needs (SEN)

Special educational needs/learning difficulties and disabilities

(SEN/LDD)

Approximately 20 per cent of the school population is defined as having special educational needs (SEN) and/or learning difficulties or disabilities (LDD).

Some of these pupils will also have learning difficulties linked to social deprivation and some pupils with special educational needs will also have disabilities. The learning difficulties encountered are often, but not always, associated with literacy and numeracy development and are sometimes aggravated by missed or interrupted schooling, perhaps due to long-term medical conditions.

In many cases, pupils’ needs will be met through appropriate intervention (see ‘Intervention in mathematics’), including the differentiation of tasks and materials. Rich tasks can be particularly useful in enabling access at different points for different pupils. You can ensure that pupils with SEN/LDD make good progress by

entitling all pupils to equal access to a full learning entitlement, whatever their starting point
ensuring that there is high quality, differentiated assessment of individual need
managing and liaising with additional adults
planning lessons effectively to ensure appropriate progress, and differentiation using the ‘Waves model’ for intervention and making use of the National Strategy progression maps to identify suitable curricular targets at class, group or individual levels (see ‘Intervention in mathematics’)
ensuring that unit and lesson plans include a suitable range of objectives
using a variety of teaching and learning styles
using data effective assessment to check pupil’s understanding against learning objectives, in class and over timeto track pupils’ progress against curricular targets (see ‘Assessment and target setting’)
using a mix of whole class, small group, paired and individual work to allow the support and development of individuals’ needs
presenting information in a variety of forms – diagrams, models, verbal explanations and written explanations – to ensure accessibility
providing structure for longer tasks; for example, through the use of speaking or recording frames.

A smaller number of pupils may need access to specialist equipment and approaches, or to alternative or adapted activities. There may be pupils in a class who need support in order to take part in whole-class work.

This support may take the form of

specific help with the recall of mathematical facts, to compensate for difficulties with long- or short-term memory
help with the interpretation of data represented in graphs, tables or charts, to compensate for difficulties with visual discrimination
access to tactile and other specialist equipment for work on shape, space and measures, to overcome difficulties with sight or in managing visual information
help with interpreting or responding to oral directions, to compensate for difficulties with hearing or in auditory discrimination
tasks designed to have smaller steps, which hold pupils into the content and pace of the lesson.

There will be occasions when it is also appropriate to seek advice and further support from the leadership team, other professionals, outreach from special schools and external specialists., as described in the SEN Code of Practice or, in exceptional circumstances, through a statement of special educational need.

Pupils with disabilities

All schools are required to make ‘reasonable adjustments’ to enable pupils with physical difficulties to access the statutory curriculum. Support for most pupils with physical or sensory disabilities will generally take place in mainstream lessons as they work on the same mathematics programme as their peer group. Modifications to materials, equipment and furniture can help to meet the pupils’ particular needs so that they can work alongside their peers. For example, some pupils may need to use ICT to assist them in reading or recording their work. Pupils with hearing or visual impairments may need to be appropriately positioned in a class or helped to take part in an activity through signing or support by another adult.

Other adaptations which may be necessary include preparation for oral and mental work and the pace at which it is conducted, the use of signing, Braille and symbols, and the provision of materials that can be physically manipulated, including specific ICT aids and adapted measuring equipment.

Although pupils with disabilities often need time to become proficient with aids, expectations for them should remain high, with the focus on giving them maximum access and independence.

Pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties

Many pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties have poor literacy and numeracy skills as a result of their inability to maintain concentration and persevere with tasks. They can be supported by

ensuring that expectations are high, to prevent them becoming bored (e.g. not oversimplifying tasks)
structuring lessons to maintain pace, giving opportunities for independent working and using a variety of activities
using additional adults to help pupils begin tasks and to help them maintain concentration
using praise to reward good learning behaviours (e.g. working effectively in groups)
making mathematics relevant by relating it to the real world.

All pupils have an entitlement to the opportunity to develop emotional and social literacy but pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties have an urgent need in this area.

Pupils with communication difficulties

Pupils with communication difficulties face particular challenges in mathematics. They need clear, effective teaching, which steadily builds their confidence and participation. Try to use a structured approach to the mathematical language required and frame its use by pupils. Some pupils with speech and language impairments have no other developmental difficulties and their mathematics lessons provide the opportunity to work alongside peers, practising and discovering strategies to overcome their difficulties.

Pupils who have autistic spectrum disorders, however, require well-structured lessons with clear routines and predictable parts. They respond best when the language used is concise, teaching is explicit, and challenges are direct and well focused. Try to ensure that your expectations are made crystal clear. Be explicit about what you expect the pupil to learn and exactly what you expect them to do. Explain this clearly for the lesson overall and then re-clarify for each separate part of the lesson or activity.

Pupils who are working well below national expectations for their age group

Where schools have significant numbers of pupils starting Key Stage 3 at level 3 or below in mathematics, it will be necessary to adapt the yearly teaching programmes more significantly. In general this can be achieved by using those from the preceding year, adding adjustments as necessary to reflect areas of particular difficulty or relative strength.

Pupils who are very able at mathematics

The Schemes of Work tend to provide yearly teaching programmes in this Framework are targets for the majority of pupils in the year group. Able pupils deal with abstract mathematics more readily than do other pupils. They will progress more quickly through these programmes and will need extension and enrichment activities to develop the breadth of their mathematics and the depth of their thinking. They can be stretched by being given extra challenges and harder problems to do when other pupils are consolidating, by offering occasional differentiated group work, and by drawing work from the teaching programmes for older pupils. Homework also provides opportunities to set suitably challenging tasks.

Where numbers permit, able pupils frequently benefit from being able to work collaboratively with pupils of similar ability on challenging tasks. Where this is not possible, very able or gifted pupils who are markedly ahead of the rest of their class can follow individualised programmes at appropriate times, with far fewer practice examples and many more challenging problems to tackle, including work that draws on other subjects. Of course, they still need some teaching to ensure that they understand what they have read and know how to present their work.

Some capable pupils working ahead of age-related expectations can benefit from programmes which lead to early entry for GCSE, say in Year 10. But research indicates two important criteria for these to be successful in helping good mathematicians reach their potential. Firstly, the teaching and learning need to be appropriately stimulating and engaging to foster and maintain an enthusiasm for the subject. Secondly, there need to be clear and accessible routes beyond GCSE (e.g. through Year 11) which will ensure continued engagement with and progression in mathematics.

This resource is licenced under an Open Government Licence (OGL).

This resource is adapted from the 2008 National Strategies: Secondary 'Framework for secondary Science'. The resource is available in format, and editable (File:Inclusive Teaching in Science.doc) format. It can also be downloaded from the National Archives here.

Inclusion in science

Gifted and talented pupils

The yearly learning objectives in the renewed Framework for secondary science are targets for the majority of pupils in a year group. Able pupils deal with abstract science more readily than other pupils. They will progress more quickly through these learning objectives and will need extension and enrichment activities to develop the breadth of their science and the depth of their thinking.

Previous Government guidance identified seven key features of effective teaching and learning

conditions for learning
knowledge of the development of learning
knowledge of subject and themes
understanding learners’ needs
planning
engagement with learners and learning
links beyond the classroom.

It is also important that gifted and talented pupils are fully representative of the school or college population. This can mean using multiple criteria and sources of evidence and ensuring that there is shared understanding of the meaning of ‘gifted and talented’.

Supporting English as Additional Language (EAL) learners

Literacy difficulties can slow some pupils’ progress dramatically in science. These issues can apply to a range of groups in school, including EAL learners, who may need support to develop language and to access the science curriculum.

Planning, teaching and learning for pupils learning English as an additional language should be underpinned by the following key principles

bilingualism is an asset and the first language has a continuing and significant role in identity, learning and the acquisition of additional languages
cognitive challenge can and should be kept appropriately high through the provision of linguistic and contextual support
language acquisition goes hand-in-hand with cognitive and academic development, with an inclusive curriculum as the context.

Strategies to support EAL learners in science

It is all too easy to underestimate what pupils can achieve in science simply because they are new learners of the English language. Expectation should be that they progress in their scientific learning at the same rate as other pupils of their age.

Strategies to support learners new to English in science include

using structured group work to allow intensive, focused teaching input and collaborative work with more expert speakers of English as well as pupils who share a first language
using structured group work to enable less-confident speakers of English to practise scientific terminology and language in a non-threatening environment so that they can gain confidence in using scientific English appropriately
using peer-group talk to give pupils time to watch and listen to those fluent in English, and to help them make sense of and apply scientific ideas
using direct, specific instructions and speaking more slowly, emphasising key words, particularly when describing independent tasks; going through things twice so that pupils get the opportunity to listen and say in their own words what you are asking them to do
asking individual pupils at the early stages of learning English to present their work orally with support from their peers and only when they are ready
as soon as English-language beginners are reasonably confident at saying something together with others, asking them to say it again on their own, giving them plenty of time and checking their understanding regularly
using extra visual clues or gestures, or translation in oral work, and using additional picture cues in written materials
supporting reading with interactive activities and scaffolds so pupils can access the science learning and ideas
helping pupils to distinguish words that have different meanings in scientific and everyday contexts
helping pupils to talk through their ideas before trying to write about them and scaffolding the writing at a level appropriate to the pupils’ skills in writing in English.

Early-stage learners of English

Science lessons are a great place for early-stage learners of English to achieve. Science has the advantage of providing an environment in which learning can occur through using visual and auditory clues. Practical and interactive work provides a great opportunity for early-stage bilingual pupils to learn from seeing and doing, and so start to develop confidence in using English. They can listen to other confident users of English talk about what they are doing in practical work and interactive learning situations.

If the bilingual learner has already been taught science in their first language, then they are likely to know some of the science and start to develop appropriate English to describe the science. If there are other speakers of their first language, they can discuss the science in their first language and then in English, so ensuring that they can learn continue to learn the science and start to develop the English in context.

More advanced learners of English

When a bilingual pupil starts to learn English, they can take up to five years to become fully fluent in all aspects of the language. Initially they will gain confidence in speaking English. This is soon followed by gaining confidence and expertise in aspects of reading. Much later they start to gain skills in writing. Unless EAL pupils are well supported in their reading and writing in science, they often underachieve, particularly in summative assessments and examinations.

In science lessons, pupils need to read and gain meaning from particular types of texts. These texts often include describing

procedures or experimental investigation
the form and functions of parts of a system
processes or mechanisms, such as how a body system or a pulley works. This type of reading requires different skills from reading a novel or newspaper
article, skills which might be developed in English lessons. Science teachers therefore need to develop the skills of supporting these different types of reading in science for all pupils, but particularly for bilingual pupils.

Once EAL pupils have developed the basics of reading English, they still need considerable support to write English using the genres required in science. Just as the types of reading in science are subject-specific, so is the writing. Science teachers need strategies that develop reading and writing skills through science lessons. Teachers can access support from other specialist colleagues in school such as EAL teachers and use literacy in science materials in order to help more advanced bilingual learners to make good progress in science.

Pupils with special educational needs (SEN), learning difficulties and disabilities (LDD)

Approximately 20% of the school population is defined as having SEN and/or LDD. Some of these pupils will also have learning difficulties linked to social deprivation, and some with special educational needs will also have disabilities. The learning difficulties encountered are often, but not always, in association with literacy and numeracy development, and are sometimes aggravated by missed or interrupted schooling, perhaps due to long-term medical conditions.

In many cases, pupils’ needs will be met through differentiation of tasks and materials. A smaller number of pupils may need access to specialist equipment and approaches, or to alternative or adapted activities. For example, there may be pupils in a class who need support in order to take part in whole-class work, such as

specific help with the recall of scientific facts, to compensate for difficulties with long- or short-term memory
help with the interpretation of data represented in graphs, tables or charts, to compensate for difficulties with visual discrimination
access to tactile and other specialist equipment for making observations and measurements during a scientific enquiry, to overcome difficulties in managing visual information
help in interpreting or responding to oral directions, to compensate for difficulties in hearing or with auditory discrimination.

It is not possible here to give detailed guidance covering every type of special educational need. However, there are four main areas to consider

communication and interaction
cognition and learning
behaviour, emotional and social development
sensory or physical difficulties.

Communication and interaction

Pupils who have difficulty in communicating or interacting face particular challenges in science. They need clear, effective teaching that steadily builds their confidence and participation. Use a structured approach to develop the scientific language you expect them to use. Some pupils with speech and language impairments have no other developmental difficulties, and science lessons provide the opportunity to work alongside peers, practising and discovering strategies to overcome their difficulties. However, pupils who have autistic spectrum disorders require well-structured lessons with clear routines and predictable parts. They respond best when the language used is concise, teaching is explicit, and challenges are direct and well focused. Your expectations for what these pupils will learn and do, both in the lesson overall and in each separate part or activity, need to be defined very clearly.

Cognition and learning

The attainment of pupils with significant cognition and learning difficulties is likely to be well below age-related expectations. For them, a much greater degree of differentiation will be necessary. You may need to refer to younger pupils’ Schemes of Work, situating them in a context suited to older pupils. Extra ‘small steps’ can be inserted, and contexts for practical work and problem solving adapted. There will then be time for consolidation without sacrificing the breadth of the teaching programmes or the principle of planning from clearly defined objectives.

Behaviour, emotional and social development

Many pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties have poor literacy and numeracy skills as a result of their inability to maintain concentration and persevere with tasks. They can be supported by

ensuring that expectations are high to prevent them becoming bored, for example, not oversimplifying tasks
structuring lessons to maintain pace, giving opportunities for independent working and using a variety of activities
using additional adults to help pupils begin tasks and to help them maintain concentration
using praise to reward good learning behaviours, for example, working effectively in groups
making science relevant by relating it to the real world.

All pupils have an entitlement to the opportunity to develop emotional and social literacy, but pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties have an urgent need in this area.

Sensory or physical difficulties

Often pupils with sensory or physical difficulties are intellectually able but may need to develop proficiency with particular aids. These pupils will work on the same science programme as their peer group. Expectations for them should remain high, with the focus on giving them maximum access and independence.

Support should enable them to take part safely and as fully as possible in experimental work. Modifications to science materials, equipment and furniture, and the use of specialist science items, will also help to meet their needs.

Where pupils with sensory impairments need signing support, Braille or materials written in signs or symbols, it is likely that provision will be through a Statement of special educational needs. Where necessary, text should be adapted to a larger print size, or translated into Braille or symbols. ICT should be used to help those with visual impairments to gain better access and understanding.

Pupils with hearing impairments will need to be appropriately positioned in a class and should be helped to gain as much access as possible to science activities by using oscilloscopes and sound level meters, the use of visual demonstrations and using the sense of touch to feel vibrations.

Pupils with visual impairments may need extra time to manage visual information, for example, using microscopes or making observations in experimental work. Extra support may be needed in lessons about light; pupils should be encouraged to use their knowledge that many light sources produce heat.

Teaching Approaches

>>>

Differentiation, Group Work and Assessment

Most teachers should be familiar with Black and Wiliam’s work on Assessment for Learning (AfL) and their oft-cited paper, Inside the Black Box (2001). However, it may not be apparent how assessment relates to differentiation, and in particular inclusive differentiation (that is differentiation that brings students together on tasks as opposed to segregating learners). Given the benefits of Collaboration and Group Talk for all abilities, it is not clear that the 'let them get on with it' approach to differentiation is satisfactory. This is particularly the case given that it has been pointed out (e.g. by Bob Slavin) that effective group work should be orchestrated in such a way that its objectives stretch all pupils, through ensuring the key objective is group learning, as opposed to simply 'coming up with' or being able to parrot a correct

Gifted and Talented Provision

However, as Bates and Munday (2005, p.39) point out, ‘In order to achieve a curriculum that is truly inclusive, and that motivates and stimulates our most able pupils, extension through challenge should be fully integrated into lesson planning.’. This is a view supported by Tomlinson et al. who highlight the potential whole-class benefits of provision for the gifted and talented; "What benefits the health of the regular classroom contributes to the robustness of learning for all students, including the gifted. Therefore, rich content, regular expectations for critical and creative thinking, development of meaningful products, establishing expectations for high quality and hard work are goals shared by both sets of educations." Tomlinson et al. (2004, p.5)

Strategies for Differentiation

Differentiation may often require planning to be successful. For example, using differentiated worksheets or essay scaffolds will require some forethought in creating these prompts. However, an awareness of class abilities, and the use of effective AfL to assess where students are, and what they need to do to improve their learning, should also be considered as a constant source of differentiation. In some contexts this assessment may be 'whole class' - for example the use of mini-whiteboards, or clickers; in others, it may be shared, but individual for example via the use of targeted questioning systems or peer assessment, while other sources may be individual including self-assessment.

The Category pages provide some resources for thinking about differentiation. Included in these documents is a discussion of differentation by task (varied tasks for different capabilities), or by outcome (varied targets or expectations for what is to be achieved). 'By outcome' should not be taken to mean that pupils should be left to get on with their work and lower ability pupils expected to achieve less, but rather that all pupils are working towards improving specifc aspects of their work in a targeted way.

References

Bates, J. and Munday, S. (2005). Able, gifted and talented. London, UK: Continuum International Publishing Group. Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (2001). ‘Inside the black box’. BERA, Final Draft. Available at: http://www.collegenet.co.uk/admin/download/inside%20the%20black%20box_23_doc.pdf [accessed 18 October 2010]. Blanchard, J. (2008). ‘Learning awareness: constructing formative assessment in the classroom, in the school and across schools’. Curriculum Journal, 19, 3, 137. Tomlinson, C. A., Reis, S. M., & National Association for Gifted Children, U.S., (2004). Differentiation for Gifted and Talented Students. London, UK: Corwin Press.

Teacher Education Resources

Planning for inclusion in your classroom

Lesson idea. The resource comprises one 17 page DfES document (drawn from a larger document - see related resources). It first describes 'inclusion' - including how it relates to high quality, interactive pedagogy and then how inclusion can be built into planning. It goes on to suggest some activities teachers might like to try, before discussing three case studies each of which offers some ideas for inclusive classrooms.

Resource details
Title	Planning for Inclusion
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the document you should have some ideas about the nature of inclusion, planning for inclusion, and how to engage inclusive interactive pedagogy.
Format / structure	.doc
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	See other DfE⁽ⁱ⁾ resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:Planning for Inclusion.doc or available in WikiText format here
Acknowledgement
License

This resource is part of the DfES resource "Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in secondary schools" (ref: 0423-2004G) which can be downloaded from the National Archives http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809101133/nsonline.org.uk/node/97131 The whole resource (512 pages) can be downloaded as a pdf File:Pedagogy and Practice DfES.pdf
The resource booklets, and many 'harvested' documents are available to download, generally in editable formats from the ORBIT resources, see Category:DfE.
The videos from the accompanying DVDs are available: Video/Pedpack1 and Video/Pedpack2

Developing effective techniques for differentiation by task and outcome

Lesson idea. Differentiation Techniques.doc - practical examples of differentiation applied to the science curriculum., Higher

Resource details
Title	Differentiation
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the session you should be able to: Distinguish between two types of differentiation – by task, and by outcome Identify examples of ‘by task’ and ‘by outcome’ differentiation, and apply these concepts to new topics. Explain some reasons why we might deploy one or other type of differentiation.
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:Differentiation Techniques.doc or in WikiText form here
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources and original ideas contributed by Paul Warwick, at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.
License

Progression and the wonders of 'one-ness' and 'two-ness'

Lesson idea. A document about developing progression in science investigations including a look at some indicators of a student's level.

Resource details
Title	Developing Progression in Primary Science
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Understand levels of progress in science Identify achievement levels in a scientific investigation
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Primary Science investigation Questioning Techniques in Primary Science Differentiation
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:Developing Progression in Primary Science.doc or in WikiText form here
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources and original ideas contributed by Paul Warwick, at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.
License

Preview of page 3

Practical Classroom Activities

Chapter 3 - Questioning

Teaching Approaches

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Introduction

The interaction between teacher and learners is the most important feature of the classroom. Whether helping learners to acquire basic skills or a better understanding to solve problems, or to engage in higher-order thinking such as evaluation, questions are crucial. Of course, questions may be asked by pupils as well as teachers: they are essential tools for both teaching and learning.

For teachers, questioning is a key skill that anyone can learn to use well. Similarly, ways of helping pupils develop their own ability to raise and formulate questions can also be learned. Raising questions and knowing the right question to ask is an important learning skill that pupils need to be taught.

Research into questioning has given some clear pointers as to what works. These can provide the basis of improving classroom practice. A very common problem identified by the research is that pupils are frequently not provided with enough ‘wait time’ to consider an answer; another is that teachers tend to ask too many of the same type of questions. ^{(Adapted from Types Of Question, section Intro).}

Why Question?

The purposes of questioning

Teachers ask questions for a number of reasons, the most common of which are

to interest, engage and challenge pupils;
to check on prior knowledge and understanding;
to stimulate recall, mobilising existing knowledge and experience in order to create new understanding and meaning;
to focus pupils’ thinking on key concepts and issues;
to help pupils to extend their thinking from the concrete and factual to the analytical and evaluative;
to lead pupils through a planned sequence which progressively establishes key understandings;
to promote reasoning, problem solving, evaluation and the formulation of hypotheses;
to promote pupils’ thinking about the way they have learned.

The kind of question asked will depend on the reason for asking it. Questions are often referred to as ‘open’ or ‘closed’.

Closed questions, which have one clear answer, are useful to check understanding during explanations and in recap sessions. If you want to check recall, then you are likely to ask a fairly closed question, for example ‘What is the grid reference for Great Malvern?’ or ‘What do we call this type of text?’

On the other hand, if you want to help pupils develop higher-order thinking skills, you will need to ask more open questions that allow pupils to give a variety of acceptable responses. During class discussions and debriefings, it is useful to ask open questions, for example ‘Which of these four sources were most useful in helping with this enquiry?’, ‘Given all the conflicting arguments, where would you build the new superstore?’, ‘What do you think might affect the size of the current in this circuit?’

Questioning is sometimes used to bring a pupil’s attention back to the task in hand, for example ‘What do you think about that, Peter?’ or ‘Do you agree?’ ^{(Adapted from Types Of Question, section Why).}

A Common Classroom Sequence

A striking insight provided by classroom research is that much talk between teachers and their pupils has the following pattern: a teacher's question, a pupil's response, and then an evaluative comment by the teacher. This is described as an Initiation-Response-Feedback exchange, or IRF. Here's an example

I Teacher - What's the capital city of Argentina?

R Pupil - Buenos Aires

F Teacher - Yes, well done

This pattern was first pointed out in the 1970s by the British researchers Sinclair and Coulthard. Their original research was reported in

Sinclair, J. and Coulthard, M. (1975) Towards an Analysis of Discourse: the English used by Teachers and Pupils. London: Oxford University Press.

Sinclair and Coulthard's research has been the basis for extended debates about whether or not teachers should ask so many questions to which they already know the answer; and further debate about the range of uses and purposes of IRF in working classrooms. Despite all this, it seems that many teachers (even those who have qualified in recent decades) have not heard of it. Is this because their training did not include any examination of the structures of classroom talk – or because even if it did, the practical value of such an examination was not made clear?

A teacher's professional development (and, indeed, the development of members of any profession) should involve the gaining of critical insights into professional practice – to learn to see behind the ordinary, the taken for granted, and to question the effectiveness of what is normally done. Recognizing the inherent structure of teacher-pupil talk is a valuable step in that direction. Student teachers need to see how they almost inevitably converge on other teachers' style and generate the conventional patterns of classroom talk. By noting this, they can begin to consider what effects this has on pupil participation in class. There is nothing wrong with the use of IRFs by teachers, but question-and-answer routines can be used both productively and unproductively. By understanding and questioning what generally happens, students can begin to construct the kind of dialogues that they can feel confident have most educational value. ^{(Adapted from The Importance of Speaking and Listening, section IRF).}

Summary of research

Effective questioning Research evidence suggests that effective teachers use a greater number of open questions than less effective teachers. The mix of open and closed questions will, of course, depend on what is being taught and the objectives of the lesson. However, teachers who ask no open questions in a lesson may be providing insufficient cognitive challenges for pupils.

Questioning is one of the most extensively researched areas of teaching and learning. This is because of its central importance in the teaching and learning process. The research falls into three broad categories

What is effective questioning?
How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?
How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?

What is effective questioning?

Questioning is effective when it allows pupils to engage with the learning process by actively composing responses. Research (Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001) suggests that lessons where questioning is effective are likely to have the following characteristics

Questions are planned and closely linked to the objectives of the lesson.
The learning of basic skills is enhanced by frequent questions following the exposition of new content that has been broken down into small steps. Each step should be followed by guided practice that provides opportunities for pupils to consolidate what they have learned and that allows teachers to check understanding.
Closed questions are used to check factual understanding and recall.
Open questions predominate.
Sequences of questions are planned so that the cognitive level increases as the questions go on. This ensures that pupils are led to answer questions which demand increasingly higher-order thinking skills but are supported on the way by questions which require less sophisticated thinking skills.
Pupils have opportunities to ask their own questions and seek their own answers. They are encouraged to provide feedback to each other.
The classroom climate is one where pupils feel secure enough to take risks, be tentative and make mistakes.

The research emphasises the importance of using open, higher-level questions to develop pupils’ higher-order thinking skills. Clearly there needs to be a balance between open and closed questions, depending on the topic and objectives for the lesson. A closed question, such as ‘What is the next number in the sequence?’, can be extended by a follow-up question, such as ‘How did you work that out?’

Overall, the research shows that effective teachers use a greater number of higher- order questions and open questions than less effective teachers. However, the research also demonstrates that most of the questions asked by both effective and less effective teachers are lower order and closed. It is estimated that 70–80 per cent of all learning-focused questions require a simple factual response, whereas only 20–30 per cent lead pupils to explain, clarify, expand, generalise or infer. In other words, only a minority of questions demand that pupils use higher-order thinking skills.

How do questions engage pupils and promote responses?

It doesn’t matter how good and well structured your questions are if your pupils do not respond. This can be a problem with shy pupils or older pupils who are not used to highly interactive teaching. It can also be a problem with pupils who are not very interested in school or engaged with learning. The research identifies a number of strategies which are helpful in encouraging pupil response. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Rowe 1986; Black and Harrison 2001; Black et al. 2002.)

Pupil response is enhanced where

there is a classroom climate in which pupils feel safe and know they will not be criticised or ridiculed if they give a wrong answer;
prompts are provided to give pupils confidence to try an answer;
there is a ‘no-hands’ approach to answering, where you choose the respondent rather than have them volunteer;
‘wait time’ is provided before an answer is required. The research suggests that 3 seconds is about right for most questions, with the proviso that more complex questions may need a longer wait time. Research shows that the average wait time in classrooms is about 1 second (Rowe 1986; Borich 1996).

How do questions develop pupils’ cognitive abilities?

Lower-level questions usually demand factual, descriptive answers that are relatively easy to give. Higher-level questions require more sophisticated thinking from pupils; they are more complex and more difficult to answer. Higher-level questions are central to pupils’ cognitive development, and research evidence suggests that pupils’ levels of achievement can be increased by regular access to higher-order thinking. (See Borich 1996; Muijs and Reynolds 2001; Morgan and Saxton 1994; Wragg and Brown 2001; Black and Harrison 2001.)

When you are planning higher-level questions, you will find it useful to use Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom and Krathwohl 1956) to help structure questions which will require higher-level thinking. Bloom’s taxonomy is a classification of levels of intellectual behaviour important in learning. The taxonomy classifies cognitive learning into six levels of complexity and abstraction

Knowledge – pupils should: describe; identify; recall.
Comprehension – pupils should: translate; review; report; restate.
Application – pupils should: interpret; predict; show how; solve; try in a new context.
Analysis – pupils should: explain; infer; analyse; question; test; criticise.
Synthesis – pupils should: design; create; arrange; organise; construct.
Evaluation – pupils should: assess; compare and contrast; appraise; argue; select.

On this scale, knowledge is the lowest-order thinking skill and evaluation is the highest. It is worth pointing out that, in most cases, pupils will need to be able to analyse, synthesise and evaluate if they are to attain level 5 and above in the National Curriculum and Grade C and above at GCSE.

Bloom researched thousands of questions routinely asked by teachers and categorised them. His research, and that of others, suggests that most learning- focused questions asked in classrooms fall into the first two categories, with few questions falling into the other categories which relate to higher-order thinking skills. ^{(Adapted from Questioning Research Summary, section Body).}

Practical Advice

The practice of questioning

Questioning is an area characterised by a good deal of instinctive practice. The first task will help you reflect on your use of questioning.

Task 1 Questioning: a self-review 20 minutes

For one lesson you teach, write down, as far as possible, all questions that you ask. To help capture them, you could make an audio recording of yourself or ask another teacher to observe you. (You could do the same for this colleague in return.)

Now analyse the questions you have asked, using a grid like the one below. Refer to the list of the purposes of questioning above to help you with the fourth column.

Question posed	Open	Closed	Evaluation of pupils’ responses(impact on learning)
What do we call the process green plants use to make food?	_______	3	Helped all pupils remember a key word
Explain the differences between the processes of photosynthesis and respiration	3	_______	Helped all pupils to process knowledge

^{(Adapted from Types Of Question, section How).}

Teacher Education Resources

Developing questioning through Bloom's taxonomy

Lesson idea. The resource comprises one 4 page DfES document (drawn from a larger document - see related resources). It first describes Bloom's Taxonomy - including how it relates to questioning. It then offers a table describing the taxonomy with 'links to thinking' and 'possible question stems'. A task asks teachers to link questions to levels of questioning, before another task suggests a planning exercise.

Resource details
Title	Questioning - Bloom's Taxonomy
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the document you should understand Bloom's Taxonomy and its relationship to high quality questioning.
Format / structure	.doc
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	See other DfE⁽ⁱ⁾ resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:Bloom's Taxonomy.doc or available in WikiText format here
Acknowledgement
License

This resource is part of the DfES resource "Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in secondary schools" (ref: 0423-2004G) which can be downloaded from the National Archives http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809101133/nsonline.org.uk/node/97131 The whole resource (512 pages) can be downloaded as a pdf File:Pedagogy and Practice DfES.pdf
The resource booklets, and many 'harvested' documents are available to download, generally in editable formats from the ORBIT resources, see Category:DfE.
The videos from the accompanying DVDs are available: Video/Pedpack1 and Video/Pedpack2

Getting pupils to do the questioning

Lesson idea. The resource comprises one 3 page DfES document (drawn from a larger document - see related resources). It first describes some methods to encourage pupils to ask effective questions and then offers a grid to record how effective the techniques have been with a particular class (you may wish to adapt this/do this less formally).

Resource details
Title	Encouraging Pupils to Ask Effective Questions
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the document you should have explored some ways to encourage pupils to ask more effective questions, and think about why this is beneficial.
Format / structure	.doc
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	See other DfE⁽ⁱ⁾ resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:Pupils Asking Effective Questions.doc or in WikiText form here
Acknowledgement
License

This resource is part of the DfES resource "Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in secondary schools" (ref: 0423-2004G) which can be downloaded from the National Archives http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809101133/nsonline.org.uk/node/97131 The whole resource (512 pages) can be downloaded as a pdf File:Pedagogy and Practice DfES.pdf
The resource booklets, and many 'harvested' documents are available to download, generally in editable formats from the ORBIT resources, see Category:DfE.
The videos from the accompanying DVDs are available: Video/Pedpack1 and Video/Pedpack2

Practical Classroom Activities

Last year I was square, but this year I am in my prime. How old am I?

Lesson idea. A problem solving activity, which can be used as a lesson starter.

Resource details
Title	Using Prime and Square Numbers - How Old Am I?
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Using prime and square numbers to solve a problem.
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	See the lesson document in WikiText or download it here Using_Prime_and_Square_Numbers.doc ^(info)
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources contributed by Mark Dawes
License	This resource was adapted from resources contributed by Mark Dawes

The complexity and scale of genome sequencing

Lesson idea. Students discuss the stages of DNA sequencing in the lab. This lesson covers A2 - AS Biology; the principles of Sanger DNA sequencing and how recombinant DNA techniques are used to clone DNA sections.

Resource details
Title	How DNA is sequenced: the stages
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Interpreting information on the use of recombinant DNA technology. Understanding that once located, the base sequence of a gene can be determined by restriction mapping and DNA sequencing. Understand the principles and stages of genome sequencing and the order of nucleotides and genetic code.
Format / structure	A 6th Form activity worksheet covering A2 biology with an answer sheet. The answer sheet can be used as a stand-alone student activity or with the activity: Human Genome Project: From Sequencing to Sharing Genomic Information.
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed	Student worksheets include relevant colour details and need to be printed. Instead of using printed worksheets, students may use a computer screen.
Useful information	Numerous short videos with interviews of scientists who have made contributions to genome research: http://www.yourgenome.org/people/index.shtml. A background information sheet for students detailing DNA sequencing for the Human Genome Project: http://www.yourgenome.org/downloads/pdf/teachers/info/HGP_infosheet.pdf
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Human Genome Project: From Sequencing to Sharing Genomic Information
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	Teaching notes here. Teacher's Page with Flash animation: http://www.yourgenome.org/teachers/hgp.shtml. Student's pages to print Activity sheet:DNA_to_data_worksheet.
Acknowledgement
License

Chapter 4 - The Importance of Dialogue in Whole Class and Group Work: == Introduction to Dialogue ==

The difficulties of defining dialogue begin with the question of how many can take part before it turns into something else. In ordinary conversation, the managing of turns is a shared responsibility, and competition for 'having one's say' in groups larger than, for example, half a dozen makes a diversion into parallel conversations very likely. Most classroom talk, in contrast, involves a centralised communication system. Teachers direct the talk by doing most of it themselves, combining lengthy exposition with many questions, allocating the right or obligation to answer those questions and evaluating the answers. The transmission of knowledge creates very unequal communicative rights to those who 'know' and those who do not. This is why the sequence of (teacher) initiation - (pupil) response - (teacher) evaluation has emerged from so many research studies as the 'essential teaching exchange'¹ In whole-class questioning, it carries risks that a single right answer will be taken as representing a class-wide understanding and a single wrong answer as a common failure to get the point. ^{(Adapted from Purposes and characteristics of whole-class dialogue, section DialogueIntro).}

Typical Classroom Dialogue

Research in many countries has shown that in whole-class sessions teachers tend to talk much more than their pupils. They also ask the great majority of questions. Moreover, most of their questions will form the first part of an exchange between a teacher and pupil known as an initiation-response-feedback (IRF) exchange.¹ These IRF exchanges give classroom talk its distinctive and familiar form.

There has been much debate amongst educational researchers over the years about the functions and value of this characteristic form of classroom interaction.² In this debate, it was at one time very common to find researchers criticising teachers for talking and questioning too much. However, most classroom researchers would probably now agree that such judgements were too simplistic. One reason is that critics did not properly acknowledge teachers' professional responsibility for directing and assessing pupils' learning of a curriculum, and the ways that they must rely on questions and other prompts to do so. Secondly, they tended to assume that all IRF exchanges were performing the same communicative function. Through the work of sociolinguists, linguistic philosophers and psychologists, we now know that it is dangerous to assume that forms of language have any direct and necessary relation to their functions. By this I mean that, for example, we cannot assume that when someone poses a question to another person, they will always be 'doing the same thing'. At an everyday level, we all appreciate this very well. In a personal conversation we are likely to perceive the question 'Do you really think that you can talk to me like that?' as carrying a very different kind of message from 'Do you want a cup of tea?'. What is more, even an apparently simple and direct question may take on special meanings within a particular setting or relationship.

In the classroom, teachers' questions can have a range of different communicative functions. For example, they can be used to test pupils' factual knowledge or understanding ('Can anyone tell me the capital city of Argentina?'), to manage classroom activity ('Are you all ready now to put your pencils down and listen?') and to find out more about what pupils are doing ('Why did you decide to have just three characters in your play?').

Even the above analysis is an oversimplification, because a question can have more than one function (for example, to find out what pupils are doing and to make them think about it) and because it takes on special meanings in the life of a particular class (have they studied Argentina already or are they about to begin?). But the key point is that the distinction between form and function is important for analysing and evaluating teacher-pupil dialogue. ^{(Adapted from The educational value of dialogic talk in whole-class dialogue, section CommonFindings).}

Dialogic Talk

Through his comparative research in the primary school classrooms of five countries, Robin Alexander³ has shown that if we look beneath the superficial similarity of talk in classrooms the world over, we will find teachers organising the communicative process of teaching and learning in very different ways. In most of the classrooms he observed, teachers talked more than the pupils; but the balance and nature of contributions varied considerably, both between countries and between classrooms. One of the reasons for this variation was that in some classrooms a teacher's questions (or other prompts) would elicit only brief responses from pupils, while in others they often generated much more extended and reflective talk. The concept of 'dialogic talk' emerged from these observations as a way of describing a particularly effective type of classroom interaction. 'Dialogic talk' is that in which both teachers and pupils make substantial and significant contributions and through which pupils' thinking on a given idea or theme is helped to move forward. It may be used when teachers are interacting with groups or with whole classes.

I can illustrate my understanding of the function of this kind of talk through the example below. It was recorded in an English primary school by Open University researcher Manuel Fernandez, who is investigating the role of computers in children's literacy development. In this extract, the teacher is talking with some members of her year 5/6 class about their current activity; they are communicating by e-mail with members of a class in another local school about the shared curriculum topic 'How to have a healthy lifestyle'.

Teacher	Right. Somebody is going to read this to me now.
Declan	‘Dear Springdale. In science we are looking at the healthy human body. We need a lot of exercise to keep our muscles, hearts and lungs working.’
Samia	‘Working well.’
Declan	‘Working well. It also keeps our bones strong.’
Samia	Yeah. We don’t need a full stop.
Teacher	Yeah. That’s fine. That’s all right. Carry on. ‘Flies …’
Declan	‘Flies and other animals can spread diseases and germs. That is why it is very important to keep food stored in clean cupboards, etcetera.’
Evan	Is cupboards spelled wrong? (It is written ‘cubourds’)
Teacher	Yes, it is spelled wrong actually. It is cup-boards. Cup-boards.
Samia	(Reading as teacher writes) B-O-A-R-D-S.
Teacher	It’s a difficult word
Evan	O, A.
Teacher	OK. Can I ask you a question? And etcetera is ETC, not ECT. I want to ask you a question before you carry on. So why have you felt it is important as a group to send Springdale this information?
(Several children speak together)
Teacher	Just a minute. Let’s have one answer at a time.
Samia	Cause if they haven’t done it yet. We can give them the information …
Teacher	Yeah.
Samia	… that we have found in the book and so when they do get – when they do this part they will know, they will know, so, to answer it.
Teacher	OK. Excellent. So what were you going to say Declan?
Declan	So they can have a healthy body and they can use it for information.
Teacher	OK.
Evan	And plus, if they haven’t got the books.
Teacher	And if they haven’t got the books. Now before you tell me anything else you’ve found in a book, I think, don’t know what you think, do you think it would be a good idea to tell them why you are … what you’ve just explained to me? We are sending you this information because …
Samia	Just because, we couldn’t find, something like …
Declan	They could be doing it right now.
Teacher	Well, they might be.
Samia	We are sending you this piece of information just in case you haven’t done it yet, to help you.
Teacher	Right, discuss it how you want to say that. OK?

In the first part of the example, the teacher uses prompts to find out what the children have done. The first actual question comes from a child, on a point of spelling accuracy. When the teacher then begins to question the children, it is not to assess their spelling; it is to elicit their reasons for what they are writing to the children in the other school. She provides feedback on their answers ('OK. Excellent.'), so the episode has some features of the familiar IRF structure; but the teacher's questioning is used to encourage the pupils to perceive more clearly the nature of their task. She then picks up on what they have said to guide the next part of their activity, by suggesting that it will be useful to share their reasoning with their audience (and modelling how they might do it: 'We are sending you this information because ...'). She is using this interaction to build the knowledge foundations for the next stage of their activity - talking with them to guide their thinking forward. So we have here talk in which pupils make substantial and thoughtful contributions, and in which the teacher does not merely test understanding, but guides its development. What is more, all the pupils present are exposed to this reasoned discussion. This may not be 'whole-class dialogue', because the discussion is not shared with all members of the class; but it certainly seems to qualify as 'dialogic talk'.

We can consider further what 'dialogic talk' offers, from an educational point of view. One of the prime goals of education is to enable children to become more adept at using language, to express their thoughts and to engage with others in joint intellectual activity (their communication skills). A second important goal is to advance children's individual capacity for productive, rational and reflective thinking (their thinking skills). Dialogic talk can help achieve both these goals. The work of the Russian psychologist Vygotsky is relevant for understanding why this is so.⁴ He suggested that using language to communicate helps us learn ways to think. As he put it, what children gain from their 'intermental' experience (communication between minds through social interaction) shapes their 'intramental' activity (the ways they think as individuals). What is more, he suggested that some of the most important influences on the development of thinking will come from the interaction between a learner and more knowledgeable, supportive members of their community.

Although developed over half a century ago, Vygotsky's intriguing ideas have only really been put to the test in recent years. Now research has confirmed the validity of some of his claims about the link between language use and the learning of ways of thinking. Research has shown that teachers' modelling of ways of asking questions, offering explanations and providing reasons can have a significant and positive effect on how children use language in problem-solving tasks.⁵ Research by myself and colleagues has shown that a programme of carefully designed teacher-led and group- based activities enables children not only to become better at talking and working together but also at solving problems alone.⁶ The group-based activities of this programme are very important; but equally important is the kind of dialogue a teacher uses in whole-class plenaries and group monitoring. It is no coincidence that the teacher in the example above has been involved in this programme. And this brings us back to 'dialogic talk'. ^{(Adapted from The educational value of dialogic talk in whole-class dialogue, section DialogicTalk).}

Why Dialogic Talk?

For children to become more able in using language as a tool for both solitary and collective thinking, they need involvement in thoughtful and reasoned dialogue, inwhich conversational partners 'model' useful language strategies and in which they can practise using language to reason, reflect, enquire and explain their thinking to others. By using questions to draw out children's reasons for their views or actions, teachers can help them not only to reflect on their reasoning but also to see how and why to seek reasons from others. By seeking and comparing different points of view, a teacher can help those views to be shared and help children see how to use language to compare, debate and perhaps reconcile different perspectives. Providing only brief factual answers to IRF exchanges will not give children suitable opportunities for practice, whereas being drawn into more extended explanations and discussions of problems or topics will. This is the valuable kind of educational experience that 'dialogic talk' and 'whole-class dialogue' can offer. ^{(Adapted from The educational value of dialogic talk in whole-class dialogue, section Why).}

Teaching Approaches

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Working With Whole-Classes

A great deal of teaching is unavoidably a passing on of information and skills. However, it benefits from being complemented by classroom talk that is organised very differently for specific curriculum purposes. It is this 'something else' to which whole- class dialogue contributes, provided it goes well beyond those class discussions which involve few departures from teacher direction and little reduction in teacher talk.² It replaces the usual hunt for answers which the teacher already knows into collaborative searches for solutions or understanding. It blurs those sharp boundaries around school knowledge that largely exclude reference to what pupils know unless they have already been taught it, or at least screens such references for educational relevance. It can provide more opportunities for learners to talk their way into understanding rather than receiving, more and less effectively an already defined version of what they are now supposed to know.³ Dialogue differs from most classroom discussion in so far as the talk is exploratory, that is teacher and pupils see the possibility of conclusions unexpected, and certainly unplanned, when the talk began.

If the potential educational advantages are substantial, why is whole-class dialogue apparently uncommon? It may well be less unusual than classroom research indicates because orderly teacher-centred talk was, until quite recently, so much easier to record audibly and then present in play-script form unpunctuated by gaps and guesses. Robin Alexander and his colleagues show a technically advanced and imaginative capacity to capture many learner voices in classrooms which were not ordered in traditional ways.⁴ But there are powerful managerial and educational reasons why departures from teacher-directed exposition and questioning are unusual.

An absence of untoward noise is still commonly taken as evidence of good classroom control. Opening out the interaction risks disorder. For example, open questions elicit unpredictable responses which are difficult to assess. It is managerially safer to ask the kinds of questions which entitle the teacher (who knows the answer) to respond immediately, thereby exercising the right to speak every other turn, or at least to take a very high share of turns. There has also been a long, well-publicised, war of attrition against progressive teaching that has caricatured it as a laissez-faire indulging of pupils' uninformed opinions. The national curriculum, literacy and numeracy programmes and the high-stakes testing of their outcomes have tended to strengthen the framing of classroom communication. With a great deal to get through, the pace of transmission is likely to be fast. This privileges the teacher's talk, producing not only a great deal of exposition but also a predominance of questions to which the answers are likely to be short and readily 'marked'.

The extent to which whole-class dialogue departs from such normal practice means that it makes unusual pedagogic demands on teachers and learners. Perhaps first among its demands on teachers is that they are willing not to do what they may often take for granted for so much of the time. For example, teachers ask so many questions that innumerable researchers have counted them, timed them, mapped their distribution, categorised them and tried to measure their cognitive level. The pressures to evaluate the consequent answers are so pervasive that there is much to be gained from sometimes replacing them with statements that invite rejoinders, elaboration or disagreement or that even admit perplexity. Dialogue is certainly unlikely to follow either closed questions or those half- or 'pseudo-open' questions which are progressively closed down in ways which make it obvious that an answer is already there for pupils to hunt down. Teachers are extraordinarily skilled not only at redirecting questions in the interests of 'getting on', but also at translating answers into something directly helpful to the lesson's progress that pupils no longer recognise as their own. These are skills to be temporarily put aside. Teachers also need the nerve to tolerate pauses between turns without feeling that any silence is an awkward silence, and that the responsibility for ending it is theirs. A pause at strategic points in the discussion of no more than five seconds (longer than most pauses in whole-class interaction) may be enough to draw in another pupil contribution or encourage the previous speaker to elaborate on what was said. Intervening to answer questions or provide information useful for getting past a sticking-point requires not only the self-restraint not to take the discussion over, but also the willingness to listen to what is being said rather than merely listening for whatever best promotes the teacher's pedagogic agenda.

Corresponding demands are made on pupils. They are usually well practised in listening for clues in how the teacher introduces a question and responds to initial answers. Experience may well have taught them that the clues are often so prolific that even a wild guess will lead the teacher to answer the question for them. They may have much less experience of listening to one another. Indeed, the distance between whole-class dialogue and customary classroom talk is wide enough to make explicit rules of engagement helpful so that the differences are seen as deliberate departures. Doing so applies the notion of a distinctive 'speech event' to whole-class dialogue, recognised by the participants as having its own way of contributing appropriately. Notable examples of recommending clear procedural rules designed largely to curb teachers' usual directing role are the Nuffield Humanities Project and the National Oracy Project, both vulnerable to ill-informed attacks as a progressive descent into 'anything goes'. ^{(Adapted from Purposes and characteristics of whole-class dialogue, section WholeClassIntro).}

Dialogic Talk

For children to become more able in using language as a tool for both solitary and collective thinking, they need involvement in thoughtful and reasoned dialogue, inwhich conversational partners 'model' useful language strategies and in which they can practise using language to reason, reflect, enquire and explain their thinking to others. By using questions to draw out children's reasons for their views or actions, teachers can help them not only to reflect on their reasoning but also to see how and why to seek reasons from others. By seeking and comparing different points of view, a teacher can help those views to be shared and help children see how to use language to compare, debate and perhaps reconcile different perspectives. Providing only brief factual answers to IRF exchanges will not give children suitable opportunities for practice, whereas being drawn into more extended explanations and discussions of problems or topics will. This is the valuable kind of educational experience that 'dialogic talk' and 'whole-class dialogue' can offer. ^{(Adapted from The educational value of dialogic talk in whole-class dialogue, section Why).}

Whole Class Dialogue - An Opportunity for Teaching Talk

Recent research has shown the importance of the link between spoken language, learning and cognitive development (e.g. Mercer, Wegerif & Dawes, 1999; Mercer, Dawes, Wegerif & Sams, 2004). Through using language and hearing how others use it, children become able to describe the world, make sense of life's experiences and get things done. They learn to use language as a tool for thinking, collectively and alone. However, children will not learn how to make the best use of language as a tool for communicating and thinking without guidance from their teachers. School may provide the only opportunity many children have for acquiring some extremely important speaking, listening and thinking skills.

For the research findings which underpin these claims, see:

Mercer, N., Wegerif, R. and Dawes, L. (1999) 'Children's talk and the development of reasoning in the classroom', British Educational Research Journal, 25, 1, 95-111

Mercer, N., Dawes, L., Wegerif, R., & Sams, C. (2004). Reasoning as a scientist: ways of helping children to use language to learn science. British Educational Research Journal, 30, 3, 367-385.

See also Teaching Approaches/Dialogic Teaching ^{(Adapted from The Importance of Speaking and Listening, section ImportanceOfTalk).}

Teaching Approaches

>>>

Group Talk - why?

Lev Vygotsky (1973) believed that it was children’s interaction with others through language that most strongly influenced the level of conceptual understanding they could reach. He believed that we can learn from others, both of the same age and of a higher age and development level. One of the main ways this operates is through scaffolding in the zone of proximal development. This concept refers to the gap between what a person is able to do alone and what she or he can do with the help of someone more knowledgeable or skilled than him or herself. It is here that the role of teachers, adults and peers comes to the fore in children’s learning. They can help bring the child’s knowledge to a higher level by intervening in the zone of proximal development by providing children’s thoughts with so-called scaffolds (small planned steps of support), which once the learning process is complete are no longer needed by the child. ^{(Adapted from Group Talk in Science - Research Summary, section Vygotsky).}

The Importance of Group Work

Summary of research A useful review of research in this area is contained in Effective teaching: a review of the literature, by David Reynolds and Daniel Muijs, some of which is included here.

It is important to acknowledge that there is firm evidence that cooperative group work is effective in improving attainment compared with pupils working alone (Johnson and Johnson 1999).

Some basics Collaborative work in small groups is designed to develop ‘higher order’ skills. The key elements are the talking and associated thinking that take place between group members. However, putting pupils in groups is no guarantee that they work as groups (Bennett 1976), so much deliberate work needs to be done to make group work productive.

According to Johnson and Johnson (1999) the cooperative group has five defining elements:

positive independence – pupils need to feel that their success depends on whether they work together or not (they sink or swim together);
face-to-face supportive interaction – pupils need to be active in helping one another learn and provide positive feedback;
individual and group accountability – everyone has to feel that they contribute to achieving the group goals;
interpersonal and small-group skills – communication, trust, leadership, decision making and conflict resolution;
group processing – the group reflecting on its performance and functioning and on how to improve.

Collaborative small-group work An alternative approach to individual practice is the use of cooperative small-group work during the review and practice part of the lesson. This method has gained in popularity in recent years, and has attracted a lot of research interest in a number of countries, such as the United States (Slavin 1996). In other countries such as the United Kingdom this method is still underused, however. In a recent study in primary schools Muijs and Reynolds (2001) found that less than 10% of lesson time was spent doing group work.

The use of small-group work is posited to have a number of advantages over individual practice. The main benefit of small-group work seems to lie in the co- operative aspects it can help foster. One advantage of this lies in the contribution this method can make to the development of students’ social skills. Working with other students may help them to develop their empathetic abilities, by allowing them to see others’ viewpoints, which can help them to realise that everyone has strengths and weaknesses. Trying to find a solution to a problem in a group also develops skills such as the need to accommodate others’ views.

Students can also provide each other with scaffolding in the same way the teacher can during questioning. The total knowledge available in a group is likely to be larger than that available to individual students, which can enable more powerful problem solving and can therefore allow the teacher to give students more difficult problems than s/he could give to individual students.

The main elements of collaborative group work identified as crucial by research are:

Giving and receiving help One of the main advantages of cooperative small-group work lies in the help students give one another. Not all kinds of help are necessarily useful, however. Just giving the right answer is not associated with enhanced understanding or achievement. In his review of research, Webb (1991) reports a positive relationship between giving content-related help and achievement. Giving non-content-related help did not seem to improve student achievement, though. Receiving explanations was found to be positive in some studies, and non-significant in others, this presumably because the receiver has to understand the help given and be able to use it. This may well require training the students to give clear help. Receiving non- explanatory help (e.g. being told the answer without being told how to work it out) was negatively or non-significantly related to achievement in the studies reviewed, while being engaged in off-task activities (e.g. socialising) was negative. In a more recent study Nattiv (1994) found that giving and receiving explanations was positively related to achievement, giving and receiving other help was slightly positively related to achievement, while receiving no help after requesting it was negatively related to achievement.

Necessary student social skills Effective small-group work does require a significant amount of preparation, and a number of preconditions have to be met beforehand in order for it to be effective. Firstly, students must be able to cooperate with one another, and to provide each other with help in a constructive way. A number of studies have found that while small-group work is positively related to achievement when group interaction is respectful and inclusive, use of group work is actually negatively related to achievement if group interaction is disrespectful or unequal (Linn and Burbules 1994; Battistich et al. 1993). This is very possible, as many (especially young students and students from highly disadvantaged backgrounds) have been found to lack the social skills necessary to interact positively with peers.

Thus, students often lack sharing skills, which means that they have difficulty sharing time and materials and can try to dominate the group. This problem can be alleviated by teaching sharing skills, for example by using the Round Robin technique in which the teacher asks a question and introduces an idea that has many possible answers. During Round Robin questioning a first student is asked to give an answer, and then passes his turn to the next student. This goes on until all students have had a chance to contribute.

Other students may lack participation skills. This means that they find it difficult to participate in group work because they are shy or uncooperative. This can be alleviated by structuring the task so that these students have to play a particular role in the group or by giving all students ‘time tokens’, worth a specified amount of ‘talk time’. Students have to give up a token to a monitor whenever they have used up their talk time, after which they are not allowed to say anything further. In this way all students get a chance to contribute.

Students may also lack communication skills. This means that they are not able to effectively communicate their ideas to others, obviously making it difficult for them to function in a cooperative group. Communication skills, such as paraphrasing, may need to be explicitly taught to students before small-group work can be used.

Finally, some students may lack listening skills. This can frequently be a problem with younger students who will sit waiting their turn to contribute without listening to other students. This can be counteracted by making students paraphrase what the student who has contributed before them has said before allowing them to contribute.

Organising small-group work For small-group work to be effective, one needs to take a number of elements into account in the structuring of the task. Before commencing the task, the goals of the activity need to be clearly stated and the activity needs to be explained in such a way that no ambiguity can exist about the desired outcomes of the task. The teacher needs to make clear that cooperation between students in the group is desired. According to Slavin (1996) the goals need to be group goals, in order to facilitate cooperation, which need to be accompanied by individual accountability for work done in order to avoid free-rider effects. Giving both group and individual grades can help accomplish this, as can use of a shared manipulative or tool such as a computer.

Avoiding free-rider effects can be aided by structuring the group task in such a way that every group member is assigned a particular task. One way of doing this is by making completion of one part of the task dependent on completion of a previous stage, so students will pressure each other to put the effort in to complete the stage before them. Johnson and Johnson (1994) suggest a number of roles that can be assigned to students in small groups, such as:

the summariser, who will prepare the group’s presentation to the class and summarise conclusions reached to see if the rest of the group agrees;
the researcher, who collects background information and looks up any additional information that is needed to complete the task;
the checker, who checks that the facts that the group will use are indeed correct and will stand up to scrutiny from the teacher or other groups;
the runner, who tries to find the resources needed to complete the task, such as equipment and dictionaries;
the observer/troubleshooter, who takes notes and records group processes.

These may be used during the debriefing following the group work;

the recorder, who writes down the major output of the group, and synthesises the work of the other group members.

After finishing the group task the results need to be presented to the whole class and a debriefing focusing on the process of the group work (the effectiveness of the collaborative effort) should be held. A useful way of starting a debriefing session is by asking students what they thought had gone particularly well or badly during group work (the observers mentioned above should be able to do this).

Research has shown that cooperative groups should be somewhat, but not too, heterogeneous with respect to student ability. Groups composed of high and medium, or medium and low, ability students gave and received more explanations than students in high-medium-low ability groups. Less heterogeneous groupings were especially advantageous for medium-ability students. When students of the same ability are grouped together, it has been found that high-ability students thought it unnecessary to help one another while low-ability students were less able to do so (Webb 1991; Askew and Wiliam 1995). ^{(Adapted from Group Work - Research Summary, section Body).}

Speaking and Listening in Group Work

Often students are keen to implement group talk activities in the classroom but are unsure about how to group children for these activities. We are keen that group talk takes place as a way of learning in all areas of the curriculum and this can present further uncertainty as children may already be grouped in attainment groups, social groups etc. It is especially important that this is explored with students as the success of group talk is contingent upon group size and composition

2 Forming Groups

2.1 Group Size

Before any examination of how to group children for talk activities, it is essential to consider with students the optimum number of children who can usefully talk in each group. Faced with classes where children may be seated in groups of 6, 8, 10, students may be tempted to set up group talk for groups of similar numbers. Guidance is fairly clear that groups of four allow for a range of ideas without the lines of communication becoming too complicated. Figure 6.3 in Bennett & Dunne (1994) is useful in exemplifying the lines of communication in groups of 3 to 5 children. See below.

There is also advice maintaining that pairs can work well together as it is difficult not to respond to one other person and this is well worth students considering for children at Foundation stage and KS1.

2 Forming Groups

2.2 Group Composition

2.2.1 Criteria for Forming Groups

A useful starting point in exploring how groups of four might be established is in asking groups of students to select and rank six criteria for forming groups from the possibilities listed below, adding any others they might think of.

Ability to write
Ability to Read
Friendship
Imagination
Ability to Listen
General Knowledge

Students are then asked to work on their own to read the quotes below related to forming groups. They should then regroup to review their selection and ranking of criteria for forming groups in light of their reading. The suggestion would be that no matter whether children were grouped in attainment groups in, e.g. Mathematics or mixed attainment groups in, e.g. Science, personality is central to decision making when forming groups. Further to this, it is likely that more effective collaboration will be experienced in groups where similar personalities are grouped together. This idea can often take students by surprise as they initially regard mixing personalities as a ‘fairer’ way of organising groups.

Personality …reluctant or hesitant speakers may feel able to participate when their more confident peers are absent, whereas dominant pupils put together may benefit from learning to cope with the contribution of those with similar traits. Holderness & Lalljee (1998)

…extrovert personalities are more likely to interact in small groups and introverts are less likely to interact.Kutnick & Rogers (1994)

Gender Tann’s (1991) experimental structuring of collaborative tasks used mixed-gender groups and found boys to be argumentative in discussion, while girls tried to reach agreement in a more consensual manner. Kutnick & Rogers (1994)

She (Webb 1991) found that an imbalance in number of boys and girls leads to gender differences similar to those found by Tann, but recommends equal numbers of boys and girls in each group to achieve balance in discussion and successful problem solving.Kutnick & Rogers (1994)

Girls will often participate more freely in a technology or science task without the presence of boys. Holderness & Lalljee (1998)

Friendship Friendship, thus, may limit achievement in problem-solving tasks and general development of co-operative skills in the classroom. Kutnick & Rogers (1994)

…groups of close friends may take so much for granted about each other that they are not able to talk in an exploratory or open way, or to be explicit about their thinking with each other- they may tend to leave much unsaid. Howe (1997)

Friends tend to agree with one another on principle, and less confident children make no contribution at all, to avoid being held responsible later on. Grugeon, Hubbard, Smith & Dawes (1998)

Attainment Groups function best when they are of mixed ability but such groups must include pupils from the highest ability groups within the class. Galton & Williamson (1992)

Homogeneous high-ability groups do not display high-level elaborative interactions when asked to jointly solve a problem; most pupils want to work as individuals. Kutnick & Rogers (1994)

Homogeneous low-ability groups have little stimulus (from more knowledgeable group members) for high-order elaborative interactions and much of their interaction is off task. Kutnick & Rogers (1994)

Webb’s evidence concerning heterogeneous/mixed ability groups finds that these groups were more likely to use high elaborative interactions leading to problem solving achievement. Kutnick & Rogers (1994)

Bilingualism There may be times when a bilingual group will enable pupils to use a shared home language, providing mutual support, while at other times a mixed language group may provide a necessary stimulus. Holderness & Lalljee (1998)

2 Forming Groups

2.2 Group Composition

2.2.2 Planning for group size and composition

To pull the aspects of group size and composition together, the following scenario can be given to groups of students to consider, having firstly given time for individuals to think about it on their own. As part of their deliberations, students should be guided to read differing views on the advantages and disadvantages of appointing a group leader.

Scenario Ms Borland thinks that the History curriculum provides a useful context for the development of speaking and listening. She has therefore begun to incorporate more group talk activities into her topics. She has noticed in one of the groups that out of 6 children only three participate to any great extent. She has decided that she will appoint a group leader in the hope that it will encourage wider participation.

Why might a limited number of children be participating in the talking tasks?
To what extent do you think her idea about appointing a group leader will encourage greater participation?
What other options could the teacher consider to increase participation? ^{(Adapted from Speaking and Listening in Group Work, section FormingGroups).}

Practical Considerations

Review all the ideas you have explored relating to group work, some of which are summarised in the table below. Circle in colour any ideas you have never used or considered.

In another colour highlight the ideas you intend to try with your case study class. Of these, prioritise with numbers the idea you think will have most impact in your lessons.

Reflect on your practice after each lesson. When you have successes or difficulties with the case study class, share them with other teachers who may have ideas to help you.

After at least four weeks of putting these ideas into practice, carry out the original questionnaire again – both your own views on pupils’ likely perceptions, plus the pupils’ views themselves.

Putting it into practice

Grouping – size and composition I could use …	Managing groups I could use …	Stimulus for group talk I could use …
pairs	pair talk	explanation for group talk
small group (three or four)	pairs to fours	demonstration for group talk
large group (five to seven)	snowball	question and answer for group talk
friendship grouping	spokesperson	taking notes using group talk
ability grouping	envoys	worksheets and book exercises using group talk
groups with similar personalities together	rainbow groups	practical work using group talk
groups with different statements	number/letter/colour	misconceptions or false personalities together
single-sex groups	random numbering	artefacts, photographs, etc.
groups with equal numbers of boys/girls per group	random continuum	open ended questions
random selection for grouping	other ideas	group concept or mind maps
groups with pupils with same first language	other ideas	concept cartoons card sorts or continuum
		other ideas

Summary

Whatever you choose to do, remember

grouping plans rather than seating plans
the choice of seating and grouping is yours
express grouping and seating in terms of learning not behaviour
change groups regularly
ensure pupils know what the purpose and the product of the discussion will be
make explicit the reason why they should
be considerate to the views of others
face each other, and sit as close together as possible
use eye contact
clear the desks before they talk as a group
work within the time targets set
don’t loom or lean
speak to them at their level or lower
encourage non-verbally: eyes, face and gesture
withhold your opinion or the ‘correct’ answer for as long as possible
ask questions rather than provide answers
use others’ answers as prompts for argument ^{(Adapted from Group Work - Practical Considerations, section Body).}

Teaching Approaches

>>>

Why Group Talk Matters

One of the prime goals of education is to enable children to become more adept at using language, to express their thoughts and to engage with others in joint intellectual activity (their communication skills). A second important goal is to advance children's individual capacity for productive, rational and reflective thinking (their thinking skills). Dialogic talk can help achieve both these goals. The work of the Russian psychologist Vygotsky is relevant for understanding why this is so.⁴ He suggested that using language to communicate helps us learn ways to think. As he put it, what children gain from their 'intermental' experience (communication between minds through social interaction) shapes their 'intramental' activity (the ways they think as individuals). What is more, he suggested that some of the most important influences on the development of thinking will come from the interaction between a learner and more knowledgeable, supportive members of their community.

Although developed over half a century ago, Vygotsky's intriguing ideas have only really been put to the test in recent years. Now research has confirmed the validity of some of his claims about the link between language use and the learning of ways of thinking. Research has shown that teachers' modelling of ways of asking questions, offering explanations and providing reasons can have a significant and positive effect on how children use language in problem-solving tasks.⁵ Research by myself and colleagues has shown that a programme of carefully designed teacher-led and group-based activities enables children not only to become better at talking and working together but also at solving problems alone.⁶ The group-based activities of this programme are very important; but equally important is the kind of dialogue a teacher uses in whole-class plenaries and group monitoring. It is no coincidence that the teacher in the example above has been involved in this programme. And this brings us back to 'dialogic talk'. ^{(Adapted from The educational value of dialogic talk in whole-class dialogue, section DialogicTalk).}

The Importance of Talk

Recent research (see the collection edited by Littleton and Howe (2010)) has shown the importance of the link between spoken language, learning and cognitive development (e.g. Mercer, Wegerif & Dawes, 1999; Mercer, Dawes, Wegerif & Sams, 2004 – see below). Through using language and hearing how others use it, children become able to describe the world, make sense of life's experiences and get things done. They learn to use language as a tool for thinking, collectively and alone. However, children will not learn how to make the best use of language as a tool for communicating and thinking without guidance from their teachers. School may provide the only opportunity many children have for acquiring some extremely important speaking, listening and thinking skills. ^{(Adapted from The Importance of Speaking and Listening, section ImportanceOfTalk).}

Exploratory Talk and the Thinking Together approach

One approach to thinking about group talk has come out of the Thinking Together project based at the University of Cambridge. In this approach, ‘group talk’ is characterised as one of three ‘types’ – cumulative, disputational, or exploratory (Mercer & Littleton, 2007) as Table 1 indicates.

Table 1 - Typology of Talk

Type of Talk	Characteristics	Analysis
Disputational	“Characterised by disagreement and individualised decision making. There are few attempts to pool resources, to offer constructive criticism or make suggestions.”	“short exchanges, consisting of assertions and challenges or counter-assertions (‘Yes it is.’ ‘No it’s not!’).”
Cumulative	“Speakers build positively but uncritically on what the others have said. Partners use talk to construct ‘common knowledge’ by accumulation.”	“Cumulative discourse is characterized by repetitions, confirmations and elaborations.”
Exploratory	“Partners engage critically but constructively with each other’s ideas. Statements and suggestions are offered for joint consideration. These may be challenged and counter-challenged, but challenges are justified and alternative hypotheses are offered. Partners all actively participate, and opinions are sought and considered before decisions are jointly made. Compared with the other two types, in exploratory talk knowledge is made more publicly accountable and reasoning is more visible in the talk.”	Explanatory terms and phrases more common – for example, ‘I think’ ‘because/’cause’, ‘if’, ‘for example’, ‘also’

Adapted from (Mercer & Littleton, 2007, pp. 58–59)

The Thinking Together site at the University of Cambridge gives some typical sequences of each talk type^[1] (Mercer, 2008) in small group work.

It is important to note that often dialogue will contain elements of each of these, and indeed that there are times when one ‘type’ of talk might be more appropriate than another – however generally speaking, higher levels of exploratory talk are associated with the educational gains discussed in the introduction to this chapter. A typical pattern of research in these studies has involved an intervention including the development of classroom ‘ground rules’, followed by lessons which are specifically designed to encourage high quality, dialogic, talk which engages pupils in explaining. The typology provides teachers with a simple way to understand the nature of the talk in their own classrooms, and – through encouraging explanation, elaboration, and mutual listening – some clear ways to improve the quality of the talk, as shall now be outlined further.

Ground Rules

Ground Rules are important to consider in order to establish effective group talk in classroom contexts. Again, the resources on the Thinking Together website website^[2] are useful for this purpose.

Exploratory Talk

Such ground rules should be designed to encourage mutual respect, and understanding, while also fostering high quality critique and reasoning through dialogue.

What Does Group Talk Look Like?

What is meant by ‘group talk’ and ‘argument’?

Group talk includes any activity where pupils’ ideas are explored verbally between pupils, even if the final product is written or practical. It includes verbal argument (in this context the word argument is used to describe discussion between pupils who hold differing views) as much as more formal debates (about contentious topics such as genetic engineering). Group talk can be both collaborative and competitive.

Stop and think

Before reading ahead, jot down your first thoughts to complete the following statements:

An activity a science/maths teacher might carry out that could be called a ‘group talk’ activity is …
If the activity was successful, what I would expect to see the pupils doing is …and what I would expect to hear in their conversations is …and what I would expect to see the teacher doing is …
The benefits to the learner of science/maths would be …
A teacher might not use group talk activities, giving reasons, such as …

What does successful group talk and argument look like?

When you take part in productive talk as an adult, you make suggestions and support, modify or clarify others’ views. You challenge ideas, ask questions to seek clarification, summarise and evaluate the pros and cons. You care about your own opinions, but allow others to shape and counter them.

In lessons where productive group talk is taking place you will see pupils discussing ideas with each other independently of, but guided by, the teacher. Pupils will often be turning to face each other, making and maintaining eye contact with others and using animated expressions with their eyes, face and through gesture. They will want to convince others, but will be looking for opportunities to consider others’ views. Words and phrases related to reasoning (such as because, why?, what if ...?) will be used. At times, pupils will be thinking and saying little as they listen to others. The teacher will be aware of the progress of the conversations and intervening without interrupting the flow of the talk. The pupils will be in control of the time taken on a discussion and will be clear on what they are expected to produce as a result of the activity.

When the group talk is over, pupils may have changed their minds at least once. They will be able to explain their current viewpoint and any previous opinions they held, as well as some of the views held by others.

Why do it? What are the benefits to the learner?

Higher-level thinking Pupils are challenged to defend, review and modify their ideas with their peers. It encourages reflection and metacognition (thinking about one’s own thinking). Pupils often communicate ideas better with other pupils than with teachers.

Assessment for learning Effectively reveals the progress of the pupil to the teacher, encouraging the pupil to self- and peer-assess while allowing the teacher to plan more effectively. As such, group talk complements methods embraced as Assessment for learning.

Illustrating science in action Working scientists use group talk – in class it models how they work, supporting the teaching of the ‘ideas and evidence’ aspects of scientific enquiry.

Developing the whole child The ability to resolve disagreements is a life-skill.

Pupils become more reflective as they try to arrive at a consensus by expressing different points of view; or work collaboratively to explore ideas, plan and make decisions. Further, it supports the development of literacy.

Pupil motivation and emotional involvement When argument is taking place, and pupils are actively prompted and provoked to defend a point of view – by the teacher and by others – it raises the emotional involvement in a topic, so that pupils are more engaged. In essence, they are being encouraged to ‘care’ about the science viewpoint they have, and to take a stand for or against it, even if they concede to others along the way. These features are more common in good English, RE and humanities lessons.

Variety and learning styles Can be used as an alternative to written or practical work (for example, experiments), or just listening as the teacher explains and demonstrates. Group talk encourages the use of different learning styles and thus can be inclusive to pupils excluded from more traditional (and often written) activities.

Why is group talk relatively uncommon in science and maths lessons? What are the issues expressed by teachers?

External factors Many teachers may feel a pressure to ‘deliver the curriculum’. There is no time in the lesson to do more than impart information. Also, the teacher may be concerned about having evidence of work having taken place (for example, usually something written down in books) – for others in the school, for parents or for Ofsted.

Internal factors The teacher may be reluctant to take a risk with group talk because they are afraid that discipline will be a problem. They do not feel comfortable with the apparent loss of control and, as their pupils are not used to being given this level of freedom to express their ideas, they may be reluctant or misbehave. If group talk has been tried in the past it may have been unsuccessful because of a lack of consideration of factors such as classroom layout and teacher behaviour.

When are pupils more likely to engage in group talk and argument?

when seating arrangements and environment are planned in order to facilitate discussion;
when the teacher’s language and non-verbal communication are planned in advance in order to promote pupil confidence in the stimulus material for group talk;
when the teacher withholds their opinion, or the answers for longer than usual;
when groupings are chosen by the teacher, and are regularly changed;
when timings are specifically used and usually kept short;
when group talk is used regularly and becomes part of everyday science lessons.

It is the teacher skills of running group talk that require the most effort to develop. Once developed, they can then be used with little preparation on the part of the teacher, allowing them to be a regular feature of lessons. Teachers may also find it useful to consider the resources in the category, and to read the Group Talk in Science - Research Summary document. ^{(Adapted from Group Talk - Benefits for Science Teaching, section Whole).}

What Do Pupils Think of Group Talk?

Pupil attitudes to group talk and argument

Pupils moving from primary to secondary classrooms are quoted in a recent study by the DfES (Curriculum continuity, 2004): ‘You were expected to work as a group’ (primary); ‘There is less group work; teachers often expect you to work individually’ (secondary); ‘There were group work rules such as taking turns, having a chair, a scribe and a timekeeper’ (primary); ‘We only have group work rules in English’ (secondary).

In their study of pupils’ attitudes to their science education, Osborne and Collins (2000) reported how pupils they interviewed ‘appreciated teachers who were willing to engage in ‘discussions’’ and who allowed pupils to contribute. Some pupils equate ‘writing’ in science with ‘work’, with practical or discussion work seen as more engaging and providing welcome variety.

Matthews’ (2001) project involved pupils working in small groups of varying gender mix where they are asked to reflect on their own and others involvement in group talk. He concluded that, when combined with feedback discussions, collaborative learning in the pupils studied can lead to pupils getting on better and helping each other with their learning, and that this leads to pupils liking science more and being more likely to continue with it in the future.

The emphasis in Shakespeare (2003) is to provide stimulus for argument and then provocation to continue to defend or alter one’s views in such a way that there is an emotional involvement in the science and thus greater motivation to resolve the dispute. This was supplemented by examples of phrases seen to work well in class that sustain and enhance the responses provided by pupils. In a later project, funded by Wellcome Trust and DfES entitled Running arguments? – teacher skills for creative science classrooms, D. Shakespeare, S. Naylor and B. Keogh worked with Bedfordshire teachers from Key Stage 2 to post-16 on the skills needed to run arguments in lessons. Pupils’ opinions were sought as teachers changed their practice and behaviour in class and included reference to the positive attitudes pupils developed towards regular changing of groups and the chance to work with others, including the making of new friendships. Only a small minority reported a dislike for group discussion. ^{(Adapted from Group Talk in Science - Research Summary, section PupilAttitudes).}

References

Littleton, K., & Howe, C. (2010). Educational dialogues: understanding and promoting productive interaction. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge.

Teacher Education Resources

"Ask questions rather than provide answers: ‘What’s the strength of his or her point?’ ‘How you could check that out?’ "

Lesson idea. Is there a way to nurture group talk in the class? These five pages of archived advice collect numerous questions for interacting in group talk, such as "‘What do you think?’ ‘What’s the matter with that idea?’ What convinces you that they are right or wrong?’. The document has activities and examples for maintaining constructive group talk, and classroom factors which play a part in such talk.

Resource details
Title	The Environment for Group Talk in Science
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	In working through this you will explore ways to develop discussion in science lessons, and see the practicalities of setting up situations for constructive argumentation engage in practical activities with both pupils and colleagues
Format / structure	.doc
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information	The resource comprises one 5 page DfES document 'harvested' from a larger document (see below).
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	See other DfEScience⁽ⁱ⁾ resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:The Environment for Group Talk in Science.doc or the WikiText version here
Acknowledgement
License

Practical Classroom Activities

Warning: Display title "Playing with Probability - Efron's Dice" overrides earlier display title "Teaching approaches: WikiText".

I have some dice that are coloured green, yellow, red and purple...

Lesson idea. A lesson activity to explore probability with dice. We are used to the idea of transitivity, where we can ascribe an order to events. Efron’s dice are non-transitive and probability methods that the pupils are familiar with can be used to explore how to play a game using them.

Resource details
Title	Playing with Probability - Efron's Dice
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Understanding the worth of probability tables and how to use them to solve a problem.
Format / structure	A wiki page also available as a downloadable Word document.
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information	Large wooden dice that are coloured green, yellow, red and purple with stickers to show numbers (see this page). Any practical probability starting point carries the risk that the results will not, in the short term, produce the expected results. This is a useful discussion point.
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	Playing with Probability - Efrons Dice/Activity and as a download File:Efron's Dice Activity.doc.
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources contributed by Mark Dawes
License

Write an essay without words

Lesson idea. This is a very open activity. Students use cameras to take photographs showing a science / maths process. They then use photo organiser / slideshow software to arrange their images to represent the process they need to show. They use the software to label and add notes to the images. Their aim is to describe a process without the need for significant amounts of text. The students could use Picasa or PowerPoint to do this, they might use stop-motion photography to show growth or the movement of the sun. These remarkable photos of a Japanese earthquake (http://www.abc.net.au/news/specials/japan-quake-2011/) are an example of the power of photography for narrative purposes.

Suggested contexts for photography:

How shadow lengths vary during the day.
A science investigation or everyday practical activity.
The germination of a plant seed over some weeks.
A walk around the school grounds looking for animal habitats.
In a science activity, students might photograph different stages of a measurement (visualising data).
In a maths activity, students might photograph different stages of the 'stones investigation'.

Resource details
Title	Organising images for a narrative
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the lesson pupils should be able to: outline some reasons for using diagrams and images in scientific work, depending on group age: outline some difficulties with displaying images accurately; flaws of imaging technology, understand ways to create a narrative with images and software.
Format / structure	A lesson component, a whole lesson, a homework^(ta) or self-directed task
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed	Students could use Picasa to organise photos (see Classifying and organising living things using images). Students could use time-lapse/stop-motion software for homework. See for example: Stop Mojo, ToonLoop, and Brothersoft Tools downloads, For Linux operating systems see LinuxStopMotion.
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Classifying and organising living things using images OER4Schools/Photo story For some lesson video clips, of a Zambian lesson on classifying vertebrates, see here.
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download
Acknowledgement
License

Chapter 5 - Developing Language: Warning: Display title "Teaching approaches: WikiText" overrides earlier display title "Playing with Probability - Efron's Dice".

Teaching Approaches

>>>

Readers should refer to the section on Dialogue for guidance on dialogue. Readers should also consider the specific guidance given in the sections Mathematical thinking and Thinking like a scientist.

Developing Reading

Recent research into reading comprehension (or making meaning from texts)

Over the last few years there has been a renewed research interest (Pressley 2000, Kintsch 1998) into what is called, in the USA, ‘reading comprehension’. This renewed research interest is not, however, a return to the concept of comprehension current in the period from 1945 to 1980. At that time the research was characterised by attempts to identify the sub-skills of comprehension, then to establish some sort of hierarchy and then to teach these identified skills to pupils in progressive order. (Such an approach is still to be found in some reading comprehension exercises.) Rather, the renewed research focus is based on seeing the child as actively engaging with the text to create meaning. It emphasises the acquisition of strategies whilst engaged in authentic reading, rather than being taught as a separate suite of skills; it has broadened the range of strategies to include both cognitive and interpretive strategies and it uses a problem-solving approach. It also recognises the impact of reader differences and the wider socio- cultural context within which any act of reading takes place.

Pressley (2000) has undertaken a major research review in this field and he offers a list of approaches to reading development, and particularly comprehension development, which represent an up-to-date synthesis of all the major strands of research-derived strategies for improving reading. Some of it is particular to Key Stages 1 and 2, but much of it is directly relevant to Key Stage 3.

Pressley’s list of strategies places considerable emphasis on various forms of vocabulary work. The importance of vocabulary development is also stressed in the US government’s National Reading Panel Report (NRP 2000), which has undertaken a review of the research evidence regarding effective teaching of reading. In looking at reading comprehension it examined 230 research studies and noted three main themes in the research on the development of reading comprehension skills.

First, reading comprehension is a complex cognitive process that cannot be understood without a clear description of the role that vocabulary development and vocabulary instruction play in the understanding of what has been read.

Second, comprehension is an active process that requires an intentional and thoughtful interaction between the reader and the text.

Third, the preparation of teachers to better equip students to develop and apply reading comprehension strategies to enhance understanding is intimately linked to students’ achievement in this area.

Extract from the US government’s National Reading Panel Report 2000, National Reading Panel. Used with permission.

The second element (intentional and thoughtful engagement between the reader and the text) is also stressed in Pressley’s list which puts emphasis on a number of ways in which the student’s comprehension might be enhanced through making connections and considering responses. Such activities are characterised as being cognitive and social, and are also active (for example rehearsing prior knowledge, generating mental images, activating knowledge about text structure) and interactive (for example asking ‘why’ questions, engaging in reciprocal teaching, working with the teacher and peers).

This emphasis on collaborative and/or interactive approaches to reading comprehension has been a characteristic of research in the field over the past 10 years and draws on theoretical perspectives from the cognitive sciences (for example from schema theory and story grammar) and socio-cultural perspectives (for example the ‘teaching models’ of Vygotsky and Bruner). The model of teaching advocated by Pressley and the NRPR is therefore a balance of direct instruction along with teacher modelling and guided practice, leading to independent practice and autonomy. This model is one which is reflected in KS3 training.

Both Pressley and the NRPR research overview on comprehension emphasise the crucial role of the teacher in explicitly encouraging the use of comprehension strategies. The NRPR cites evidence to show that the pupils of teachers who consciously included reading comprehension strategies within their reading programmes made better progress in their reading. It seems that comprehension improves when teachers provide explicit instruction in comprehension strategies and when teachers design and implement activities that support understanding (Tharp 1992). Explicitly planning to include such strategies within shared and guided reading would therefore seem to be an essential part of a successful reading programme.

The importance of having a range of learning strategies

It seems from the research quoted above that there is a growing consensus about the kinds of experiences pupils need in order to develop their reading comprehension, in the teaching model and in the range of strategies that might be helpful. The NRPR drew attention to the importance of pupils having a range of reading comprehension strategies. Work in cognitive psychology has shown that pupils need to have access to a range of strategies to enable development to take place. Siegler (2000) in a recent overview into learning and development makes the point that learners need a range of ‘production strategies’ (ways of doing things) and that having a wide range of production strategies is important for development to take place. Learners, he claims, add to their repertoire of strategies by

observation (watching someone do it);
discovery/invention (finding out for themselves);
direct instruction (explain, show, tell, practise, feed back);
analogy (if this works for X it might also work for Y).

They then go on to refine these strategies by

automation (practising it until it becomes habitual);
reflection (doing something and then thinking about it);
examination (i.e. social examination, comparing and contrasting with others). Access to a range of strategies is important for development but also to accommodate pupils’ different learning styles. Research into brain function has shown that different areas of the brain are used when different kinds of thinking and learning are required. Some pupils show a marked preference for strategies that require a particular type of learning to be used. Using a range of strategies ensures that pupils can use not only those strategies that they prefer but also those that require other types of learning to be stimulated. Howard Gardner (1993) has identified seven different aspects of learning. These are
linguistic or verbal;
visual/spatial;
logical/mathematical;
physical/kinaesthetic;
musical;
interpersonal;
metacognitive.

Robert Fisher gives a useful summary of strategies to enhance these different types of learning in his book Teaching children to learn (1995).

The importance of metacognitive awareness in reading comprehension

Siegler (2000) sees the pupil as moving from acquiring strategies to being able to reflect on their usefulness and compare them with others. This implies a level of conscious decision-making by the pupil. This ‘self-awareness’ and ability to reflect is important in learning. Gardner (1993) lists metacognitive intelligence as one of the types of learning, but it is one that, until recently, was rarely actively encouraged in many classrooms. Vygotsky (1962) suggested that there are two stages in the development of knowledge: firstly there is automatic unconscious acquisition (we learn things or do things but do not know that we know these things), and secondly there is a gradual increase in active conscious control over that knowledge (we begin to know that we know and that there is more we do not know). The second of these is a metacognitive level of understanding. Over the last decade we have become increasingly aware of the importance of metacognition in learning to read (Baker and Brown 1984). One of the characteristics distinguishing younger readers from older readers, and poorer readers from fluent readers, is that younger and poorer readers often do not recognise when they have not understood a text (Garner and Reis 1981); that is, there is evidence that they are not actively aware of their own level of understanding and are therefore not able to make an autonomous decision to use a strategy to enhance their understanding. Other readers show a greater awareness of their own level of understanding for they will stop when a text does not make sense to them. Some will then go on to select from their range of strategies that which might help overcome their problem.

In shared and guided reading sessions we can model for pupils how fluent readers monitor their understanding and use strategies to clarify their own understanding. These may range from semantic strategies to work out a troublesome word to sophisticated reflections on whether the meaning is deliberately obscure (as in a mystery) or perhaps challenging the author/text because the reader thinks they are incorrect. Such teacher modelling is an important part of the learning opportunities within reading sessions. The work of Gerry Duffy and Laura Roehler (Duffy et al. 1987; Duffy and Roehler 1989) concerning teacher demonstration and modelling is the one most often referred to.

References

Baker, L. and Brown, A. L. (1984) ‘Metacognitive skills and reading’. In D. Pearson (ed) Handbook of reading research. Longman. ISBN: 0805841504.
Duffy, G. G. and Roehler, L. R. (1989) ‘Why strategy instruction is so difficult and what we need to do about it’. In C. B. McCormick, G. Miller and M. Pressley (eds) Cognitive strategy research: from basic research to educational applications, pp. 133–154. Springer-Verlag. ISBN: 0837968695.
Duffy, G. G. et al. (1987) ‘Effects of explaining the reasoning associated with using reading strategies’. Reading Research Quarterly 22, 347–368.
Fisher, R. (1995) Teaching children to learn. Nelson Thornes. ISBN: 074872091X.
Gambrell, L. B., Morrow, L. M., Neuman, S. B. and Pressley, M. (1999) Best practices in literacy instruction. Guilford Publications. ISBN: 1572304421.
Gardner, H. (1993) Frames of mind: the theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books. ISBN: 0465025102.
Garner, R. and Reis, R. (1981) ‘Monitoring and resolving comprehension obstacles: an investigation of spontaneous text lookbacks among upper grade good and poor comprehenders’. Reading Research Quarterly 16, 569–582.
Harrison, C. (2002) Roots and research. Ref. DfES 0353/2002. Available on the Key Stage 3 website www.standards.dfes.gov.uk/keystage3/publications.
Harrison, C. (2002) ‘What does research tell us about how to develop comprehension?’ In R. Fisher, G. Brooks and M. Lewis (eds) Raising standards in literacy. Routledge. ISBN: 0415263506.
Kintsch, W. (1998) Comprehension: a paradigm for cognition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0521629861.
National Reading Panel (2000) Report of the National Reading Panel. Government Printing Office, Washington DC. Available at www.nationalreadingpanel.org.
Pressley, M. (2000) ‘What should comprehension instruction be the instruction of?’ In M. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson and R. Barr (eds) Handbook of Reading Research 3, 545–62. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Tharp (1992) ‘The effective instruction of comprehension’. Reading Research Quarterly 17:4, 503–27.
Siegler, R. (2000) ‘The rebirth of pupils’ learning’. Child Development, 71:7, 26–35.
Voygotsky, L. (1962) Thought and language. MIT Press. ^{(Adapted from Improving Reading - Research Summary, section Whole).}

Improving Writing

Choice of teaching strategies can make a difference

In a meta-analysis of research looking at a range of studies on teaching strategies in secondary classrooms, three broad approaches to the teaching of writing were identified (Hillocks 1986)

presentational: where the role of the teacher is that of setting tasks and marking outcomes;
process: where the pupil controls the writing choice and writing is developed through drafts and peer-conferencing (Graves 1983; Calkins 1988);
environmental: a more guided, negotiated approach where active teaching of complex strategies supports pupils towards independent use (Australian genre theorists).

The study suggests that the latter approach is two or three times more effective than the ‘process’ approach and four times more effective than the ‘presentational’ approach because

new forms and criteria for writing are modelled;
enquiry and problem-solving processes are involved;
distinct features are identified and pupils are helped to apply these in their own independent writing.

Effective teaching of writing will depend on the degree to which teachers understand the complexity of the task (Schulman 1987).

Clear, focused writing objectives support pupils

Tightly structured lessons, which establish a clear sense of purpose and direction through clearly defined achievable targets, benefit all pupils but especially boys (Frater 1998).

Writing needs to be purposeful and offer pupils a stake in the negotiation of meaningful opportunities for expressing their interests (Britton et al. 1975). This is crucial for maintaining the interest of boys. Teachers have been slow to use boys’ particular knowledge of media and information technology and to link preferred writing to their preferred reading of factual ‘real world’ texts (Daly 1999). There is clear agreement in research on the need to integrate activities in writing around purposeful, authentic learning tasks.

use of shared reading as a bridge to writing

Teachers need to provide good examples of texts so that pupils are able jointly to investigate and analyse the features as readers or as writers. Callaghan and Rothery (1998) suggest that there are three stages in this approach

modelling: teacher shares information about the uses and features of the text type (genre);
joint construction: teacher and pupils work together to construct a new text sharing the same generic features;
independent construction: pupils construct a new text in the same genre, drafting and editing in consultation with peers and the teacher.

American researchers Nystrand, Gamoran and Carbonaro (1998) found that writing achievement was positively related to the degree of coherence between reading, writing and discussion (peer response) in secondary classrooms. Research with older primary pupils suggests that teaching writing in combination with reading prompts better critical thinking about texts than when the activities are isolated.

Writing at Key Stage 3 involves learning to read from multiple sources and writing critically in response. Writers need to be able to organise more complex information and to orchestrate, control and reflect upon their writing of a wide range of fiction and non-fiction texts (Hillocks 1995).

Explicit teaching and modelling language choices Anticipating the needs of their audience and understanding the reader/writer relationship require clarity of objectives, purpose and task. Teachers need to be clear with pupils how the audience and purpose for their piece of writing will determine the structural and linguistic choices they make as writers (Cope and Kalantzis 1993).

Australian genre theorists have shown how reading–writing links can be productive, particularly in teaching non-fiction writing. They advocate explicit teaching of how texts work in order that pupil writers can construct texts and organise their own ideas for particular purposes and audiences effectively (Halliday 1985).

Exploration of texts can help writers access a range of ‘discourses of power’, that is ways of writing used by people to organise and influence the world around them (Martin 1989). Many aspects of written information texts can be explored directly with pupils to create awareness of the different language resources that serve different purposes (Christie 1998, Derewianka 1990, Hasan and Martin 1989, Kress 1982).

Evidence shows that teachers can support pupils in managing complexity by modelling the power of sentence-combining activities (Shaughnessy 1979). Modelling is more than ‘demonstrating’ writing because it involves talking pupils through the thinking and decision-making processes used when writers write. The teacher takes the role as ‘expert’ (Vygotsky 1980). The use of metacognition and meta-language are important factors. Pupils need a supportive writing environment but benefit from seeing and experiencing the ‘struggles’ that are part of developing the writing skills (Bereiter and Scardamalia 1982, 1987).

Guided writing Guided writing offers small-group teaching opportunities to support writers in making valuable connections between the text-, sentence- and word-level decisions required to shape texts with particular criteria in mind. Teachers can clarify the cognitive processes used when pupils are planning and revising, before, during or after writing parts of a text. The aim is to develop better-focused and more fluent writing with the support and feedback of teacher and peers (Scardamalia et al. 1981).

Scaffolding Scaffolding is an effective process by which the teacher organises learning that is challenging to pupils in such a way as to assist them to carry out the new task successfully (Wood et al. 1976). It is a complex process and involves

activating and maintaining the learner’s interest;
reducing the number of choices available;
keeping the pupils on-task;
highlighting critical aspects;
controlling frustration;
demonstrating the process to pupils.

Scaffolding has a role in moving pupils to independent use of new strategies by supporting them as co-constructors of knowledge and co-users of more expert strategies than those they can control independently (Palincsar 1986). Writing frames are just one example of scaffolds, but their misuse has underlined the complexities in the process of pupils becoming sufficiently independent to manage without the ‘expert facilitator’ (Lewis and Wray 2000).

Feedback and revision

Since writing involves the integration of several processes, re-reading to revise is important (Norwood, Hayes and Flower 1980). Chanquoy (2001) shows the positive effect of returning to writing after the event. The time delay seems to help, but the techniques for revising need to be explicitly taught, that is modelled by the teacher. Glynn et al. (1989), behavioural psychologists researching in New Zealand classrooms, found considerable evidence that positive oral feedback has an impact on both motivation and the amount written. This was found to be more significant when errors were selectively targeted and when pupils were involved in error correction and praised for this. The research suggests that teachers’ comments should be organisational, encouraging, constructive, challenging and push pupils’ thinking. The work of Black and Wiliam (1998) and Black et al. (2002) looks at formative assessment and its relationship to raising standards in pupils’ learning. They comment that effective feedback needs to make explicit to pupils what is involved in producing high-quality writing and what steps are needed for improvement. They suggest that pupils should be actively engaged in the thinking and discussion involved.

References

Bereiter, C. and Scardamalia, M. (1982) ‘From conversation to composition: the role of instruction in the developmental process’. In R. Glaser (ed) Advances in instructional psychology. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN: 0898594227.
Bereiter, C. and Scardamalia, M. (1987) The psychology of written composition.

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN: 0805800387.

Black, P. and Wiliam, D. (1998) Inside the black box: raising standards through classroom assessment. King’s College, London. ISBN:1871984688.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B. and Wiliam, D. (2002) Working inside the black box: assessment for learning in the classroom. King’s College, London. ISBN: 1871984394.
Britton, J. et al. (1975) The development of writing abilities (11–18). Macmillan. ISBN: 0333178629.
Calkins, L. M. (1988) The art of teaching writing. Heinemann. ISBN: 0435082469.
Callaghan, M. and Rothery, J. (1998) Teaching factual writing: a genre-based approach. NSW Board of Education, Australia.
Chanquoy, L. (2001) ‘How to make it easier for children to revise their writing, a study of text revision from 3rd to 5th grades’. British Journal of Educational Psychology 71, 15–41.
Christie, F. (1998) Literacy and schooling. Routledge. ISBN: 0415170176.
Cope, B. and Kalantzis, M. (1993) The powers of literacy: a genre approach to teaching writing. Falmer Press. ISBN: 0822911795.
Daly, C. (1999) ‘Reading boys’. In J. Miller (ed) Changing English 6:1. Carfax Publishing.
Derewianka, B. (1990) Exploring how texts work. PETA, Australia. ISBN: 0909955905.
Frater, G. (1998) ‘Boys and literacy’. In K. Bleach (ed) Raising boys’ achievement in schools. Trentham Books. ISBN: 1858561035.
Glynn, T., Crooks, T., Bethune, N., Ballard, K. and Smith, J. (1989) Reading recovery in context. Report to Research and Statistics Division, New Zealand Department of Education.
Graves, D. (1983) Writing: teachers and children at work. Heinemann. ISBN: 0435102710.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1985) A short introduction to functional grammar. Edward Arnold.
Hasan, R. and Martin, J. R. (1989) ‘Language development: learning language, learning culture’. Meaning and Choice in Language 1.
Hayes, J. R. and Nash, J. G. (1996) ‘On the nature of planning in writing’. In C. M. Levy and T. S. Randall (eds) The science of writing. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hillocks, G. (1986) Research on written composition: new directions for teaching. NCTE, Urbana. ISBN: 0814140750.
Hillocks, G. (1995) Teaching writing as reflective practice. NY Teachers College Press. ISBN: 0807734330.
Holdaway, D. (1979) Foundations of literacy. Scholastic. ISBN: 0868960144.
Kress, G. (1982) Learning to write. Routledge. ISBN: 071009048X.
Kress, G. and Van Leeuwen, T. (1996) Reading images: the grammar of visual design. Routledge. ISBN: 0415106001.
Lewis, M. and Wray, D. (2000) Literacy in the secondary school. David Fulton. ISBN: 1853466557.
Martin, J. R. (1989) Factual writing: exploring and challenging social reality. Oxford University Press. ISBN: 0194371581.
Millard, E. (2001) ‘Aspects of gender: how boys’ and girls’ experiences of reading shape their writing’. In J. Evans (ed) The writing classroom. David Fulton.
Norwood, N. J., Hayes, J. R. and Flower, L. S. (1980) ‘Identifying the organisation of writing processes’. In L. Gregg and E. R. Steinberg (eds) Cognitive processes in writing. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Nystrand, M., Gamoran, A. and Carbonaro, W. (1998) Towards an ecology of learning: the case of classroom discourse and its effects on writing development in high school English and social studies. Albany.
Palincsar, A. S. (1986) ‘The role of dialogue in provided scaffolded instruction’. Educational Psychologist 21, 73–98.
Perera, K. (1989) Children’s writing and reading: analysing classroom language.

Basil Blackwell/Andre Deutsch Ltd. ISBN: 0631136541.

Pressley, M., El-Dinary, P. B., Marks, M. B., Brown, R. and Stein, S. (1992) ‘Good strategy instruction is motivating and interesting’. In K. A. Renniger, S. Hidi, and A. Krapp (eds) The role of interest in learning and development. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN: 0805807187.
Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, B. and Fillion, B. (1981) Writing for results: a sourcebook of consequential composing activities. OISE Press. ISBN: 0896881849.
Schulman, L. S. (1987) ‘Knowledge and teaching: foundations of the new reform’. Harvard Educational Review 57.
Sharples, M. (1999) How we write: writing as creative design. Routledge. ISBN: 0415185866.
Shaughnessy, M. P. (1979) Errors and expectations: a guide for the teacher of basic writing. Oxford University Press. ISBN: 0195025075.
Vygotsky, L. (1980) Mind in society (ed M. Cole et al.). Harvard University Press. ISBN: 0674576292.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S. and Ross, G. (1976) ‘The role of tutoring in problem solving’. Child Psychiatry 17. ^{(Adapted from Improving Writing - Research Summary, section Whole).}

Teacher Education Resources

What's that word? Thinking about the language used in your subject

Lesson idea. The resource comprises one 2 page DfES document (drawn from a larger document - see related resources). It highlights the importance of subject-specific vocabulary and its consideration in teaching as well as offering some practical tips for encouraging its effective use, and remembering in classroom contexts.

Resource details
Title	Subject Specific Vocabulary
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the document you should have considered the importance of subject specific vocabulary in your own practice.
Format / structure	.doc
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	See other DfE⁽ⁱ⁾ resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:Subject Specific Vocabulary.doc (WikiText version here)
Acknowledgement
License

This resource is part of the DfES resource "Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in secondary schools" (ref: 0423-2004G) which can be downloaded from the National Archives http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809101133/nsonline.org.uk/node/97131 The whole resource (512 pages) can be downloaded as a pdf File:Pedagogy and Practice DfES.pdf
The resource booklets, and many 'harvested' documents are available to download, generally in editable formats from the ORBIT resources, see Category:DfE.
The videos from the accompanying DVDs are available: Video/Pedpack1 and Video/Pedpack2

Developing good pedagogy in using text based activities for learning

Lesson idea. The resource comprises one 7 page DfES document (drawn from a larger document - see related resources). It highlights a range of Directed Activities Related to Text based on reconstruction (e.g. text & diagram completion), or analysis (e.g. highlighting text). It includes a range of strategies and examples of use, with some activities for teachers to work through.

Resource details
Title	Directed Activities Related to Text (DARTs)
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the document you should have considered some approaches to DARTs in the classroom and related these to your own practice.
Format / structure	.doc
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	See other DfE⁽ⁱ⁾ resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:DARTs.doc (WikiText form)
Acknowledgement
License

This resource is part of the DfES resource "Pedagogy and practice: Teaching and learning in secondary schools" (ref: 0423-2004G) which can be downloaded from the National Archives http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110809101133/nsonline.org.uk/node/97131 The whole resource (512 pages) can be downloaded as a pdf File:Pedagogy and Practice DfES.pdf
The resource booklets, and many 'harvested' documents are available to download, generally in editable formats from the ORBIT resources, see Category:DfE.
The videos from the accompanying DVDs are available: Video/Pedpack1 and Video/Pedpack2

Listening series - C105

<<< >>>

What colour is lime water? How the science language confuses

Lesson idea. In this audio file, science teacher and dictionary author Dr William Hirst explains that learning the language of science can improve children’s success at school.

Resource details
Title	Jargon - the language of science
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Appreciate a language issue in learning science.
Format / structure	Audio podcast - 14 minutes mp3
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information	Edited from The Science Show on Cambridge 105 FM
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	Radio - audio: Introduced by Roger Frost (1 minute) - Interview William Hirst (14 minutes) Right click to Save. Or click to use. Some suggested discussion points and questions can be seen on this WikiText page
Acknowledgement	This resource was created by Roger Frost, and is under the ORBIT's CC licence.
License

How can science help to develop speaking, listening, writing and reading skills?

How can developing these skills enhance children’s understanding of science?

Lesson idea. This resource explains the relationship between language and the curriculum. It outlines links between language skills and science, offering examples of science work which could develop speaking and listening, reading, and writing skills. Advice on long-term planning for the development of language skills in science suggests:

reviewing what you already do,(planning for greater emphasis on language,
identifying what else happens in school and evaluating your success.

Included are example activities designed to develop children's use of language in science topics: 'moving things' 'materials'. A further document considers the topic of 'light' as a context for developing language.

Resource details
Title	Developing Language in Primary Science
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Explaining the relationship between language use, and the science curriculum. Giving examples of links between language skills and science. Giving examples of activities which develop children's use of language in science. Considering long-term planning for a science curriculum with language development in mind.
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Primary Science investigation Questioning Techniques in Primary Science Differentiation Developing Progression in Primary Science
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	Read the documents online WikiText page Main document File:Developing Language in Primary Science.doc (WikiText form) Developing language using the topic of 'light' File:Developing language using light.doc (WikiText form) snapshot of files
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources and original ideas contributed by Paul Warwick, at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.
License

Property "Tagline" (as page type) with input value "How can science help to develop speaking, listening, writing and reading skills? </br>How can developing these skills enhance children’s understanding of science?" contains invalid characters or is incomplete and therefore can cause unexpected results during a query or annotation process.

Practical Classroom Activities

Using mathematical language to discuss shapes of objects either printed or hidden in 'feely bags'. Can you feel the forks?

Lesson idea. Activities based on an original document from TESSA to encourage pupils to use mathematical language to think about shapes. There are sample materials and case studies of its use.

Resource details
Title	Exploring shape and its mathematical language through sorting activities
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Using open-ended sorting activities to explore knowledge of shapes. Exploring practical ways to introduce pupils to the language or ‘register’ of mathematical terms. Using practical activities to develop pupils’ understanding as well as mathematical descriptions of geometric shapes.
Format / structure	A set of Word documents.
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information	The resource is intended as an example of how open-ended tasks can be used to encourage mathematical thinking, and exploration in the context of a teacher education session. It is also useful as a mathematics resource in its own right.
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	The resource is described in full here, and is available to download as a Word document File:SortingExploringShape.doc. File:SortingShape Resource 1.doc - describes an activity using 'feely bags' (or read the activity online) File:SortingShape Resource 2.doc - an example mathematical dictionary (or read the activity online) File:SortingShape Resource 3.doc - images for the discussion / game about shape described in resource 4 (or read the activity online) File:SortingShape Resource 4.doc - two games which aim to encourage thinking about shape (or read the activity online)
Acknowledgement
License

Teacher notes on Introduction to Standard Index Form

What you need:

Teacher's notes - read below or download File:Introduction to standard index form - teacher notes.doc
A lesson guide including opportunities for questioning^(ta) - PowerPoint File:Standard index form.ppt
Solar system data is an opportunity for in-depth thinking - Excel File:Solar system data.xls
Calculators - this lesson was written for use with TI-82 Graphical Calculators but other calculators can also be used.

Learning objectives:

Being able to convert numbers between standard index form and ordinary form.
Knowing whether a number is in standard index form or not.

About:
Numbers that are too big or too small for the calculator 10-digit display are shown in standard index form. Many calculators now use ×10ⁿ but older calculators may use ‘E’ in the display instead. If a calculator is in ‘scientific mode’ it will display all numbers in standard index form. This activity is for secondary school pupils who are unfamiliar with standard index form. It is an intriguing investigation (one hour) when pairs of students explore the way a that calculator converts numbers. They find out how it works for themselves - the pairing-up helping to make the task accessible to more pupils.

Lesson Plan:

Ask the pupils what each of the sets of numbers have in common on the first slide of the PowerPoint File:Standard index form.ppt. They are likely to find this difficult (the first set all have 1 significant figure, the second set have 2 significant figures).

Ask the pupils to put their calculator into Scientific Mode. If you own the calculators then they can be set up in advance. Starting with '1 significant figure' numbers, pupils should enter them in turn and press ‘=’. They should then enter other '1 significant figure' numbers but as they do, predict what the calculator will show. It is probably best to use only big numbers at this stage. In the discussion that will follow, you may hear many explanations of what is happening.

Ask pupils what they think would happen if they enter a number with 2 significant figures. A common misconception is that they assume the result will also have two digits and that the index will denote the number of zeroes. They should now try some examples on their calculators and improve the theory. Ask them to enter increasing numbers of significant figures, until they can predict how the calculator will display any big number.

There is only one rational number that cannot be written in standard index form. It's zero, but why? The PowerPoint presentation has a definition to show to the pupils at the end of the lesson.

Using standard form on the calculator:

Graphical calculator set-up: working in pairs, with one or two calculators: turn on, press mode (top left), press the right arrow so that sci is flashing, and then enter. Press quit (press 2nd and then mode). The calculator is now set to change all numbers into standard form (using 4E7 notation to stand for 4 x 10⁷ ).
Can pupils predict how certain numbers put up on the whiteboard will be displayed? (The calculator uses 4E7 – because it cannot write them as 4 x 10⁷. We have to write them this way).
Write some of the numbers on the whiteboard using correct notation.

Solar System - Excel worksheet:

The Excel worksheet containing solar system data (File:Solar system data.xls) allows pupils to see the point of using the standard index form. They will write some numbers in standard index form and do some conversions.
Ask the class to fill in empty columns on the sheet and put the masses in ascending order.

The worksheet has interesting features for the pupils to wonder about.

Why is Pluto included even though it is no longer regarded as a planet? By definition it is now a ‘Plutoid’.
Why are the distances of the objects from the sun averages? The planets do not have circular orbits – which is a common misconception.
Why does the Moon not have a distance from the Sun? Its average distance from the Sun is the same as that of the Earth.

Follow up ideas:

A homework idea is for pupils to write up what they discovered during the lesson. Since they must revisit the topic after they first explored it, this will provide evidence of what they have taken from the lesson. You can use this to assess their understanding.
Use standard index form with small and large numbers in different contexts.
I usually return to the calculators in a subsequent lesson to deal with numbers that are less than 1.

Chapter 6 - Enquiry Learning

Teaching Approaches

>>>

Inquiry and Pedagogy

You might like to watch this video on use of collaborative enquiry in classroom tasks www.teachersmedia.co.uk/videos/collaborative-enquiry including a brief overview of the research.

Overview

^{(Adapted from Edutech wiki http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Inquiry-based_learning CC licensed, section WholePage).}

Inquiry-based learning is often described as a cycle or a spiral, in which there are stages of: question formulation; investigation; creation of a solution or an appropriate response; discussion; and reflexion in connexion with results (Bishop et al., 2004). IBL is a student-centered and student-lead process. The purpose is to engage the student in active learning, ideally based on their own questions. Learning activities are cyclic with each question leading to the creation of new ideas and other questions.

IBL is socio-constructivist (based broadly on Vygotskian ideas), emphasising the importance of collaboration within which the student finds resources, uses tools and resources produced by inquiry partners. Thus, the student make progress by work-sharing, talking and building on everyone's work.

Models

There are many models of inquiry-learning described in the literature. We shall present as an example the cyclic inquiry model presented on the inquiry page sponsored by "Chip" Bruce et. al of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC).

Cyclic Inquiry model

The purpose of the UIUC inquiry model is the creation of new ideas and concepts, and their spreading in the classroom.

The Inquiry cycle is a process which engages students to ask and answer questions on the basis of collected information and which should lead to the creation of new ideas and concepts. The activity often finishes by the creation of a document which tries to answer the initial questions.

The cycle of inquiry has 5 global steps: Ask, Investigate, Create, Discuss and Reflect. We will give an example for each step using the "rainbow" example from Villavicencio (2000) who works on light and colors every year with 4 or 5 years old children.

from: [The Inquiry Page]

During the preparation of the activity, teachers have to think about how many cycles to conduct, how to end the activity (at the Ask step): when/how to rephrase questions or answer them and express followup questions.

Ask

Ask begins with student's curiosity about the world, ideally with their own questions. The teacher can stimulate the curiosity of the student by giving an introduction talk related to concepts that have to be acquired. It's important that student formulate their own questions because they then can explicitly express concepts related to the learning subject.

This step focuses on a problem or a question that students begin to define. These questions are redefined again and again during the cycle. Step's borders are blurred: a step is never completely left when the student begins the next one.

Rainbow Scenario : The teacher gives some mirrors to the children, so they can play with the sunlight which is passing trough the classroom's windows. With these manipulations, students can then formulate some questions about light and colors.

Investigate

Ask naturally leads to Investigate which should exploit initial curiosity and lead to seek and create information. Students or groups of students collect information, study, collect and exploit resources, experiment, look, interview, draw,... They already can redefine "the question", make it clearer or take another direction. Investigate is a self-motivating process totally owned by the active student.

Rainbow Scenario : Once questions have been asked, the teacher gives to the children some prisms which allow them to bend the light and a Round Light Source (RLS), a big cylindrical lamp with four colored windows through which a light ray can pass. Then the children can mix the colors and see the result of their mixed ray light on a screen. They begin to collect information...

Create

Collected information begins to merge. Students start making links. Here, ability to synthesize meaning is the spark which creates new knowledge. Student may generate new thoughts, ideas and theories that are not directly inspired by their own experience. They write them down in some kind of report.

Rainbow Scenario : Some links are created from collected information and children understand that rainbows have to be created by this kind of phenomenon.

Discuss

At this point, students share their ideas with each other, and ask others about their own experiences and investigations. Such knowledge-sharing is a community process of construction and they begin to understand the meaning of their investigation. Comparing notes, discussing conclusions and sharing experiences are some examples of this active process.

Rainbow Scenario : children often and spontaneously sit around the RLS. They discuss and share their newly acquired knowledge with the purpose to understand the mix of colors. Then, they are invited to share their findings with the rest of the class, while the teacher takes notes on the blackboard.

Reflect

This step consists in taking time to look back. Think again about the initial question, the path taken, and the actual conclusions. Student look back and maybe take some new decisions: "Has a solution been found ?", "did new questions appear?", "What could they ask now ?",...

Rainbow Scenario : teacher and students take time to look back at the concepts encountered during the earlier steps of the activity. They try to synthesize and to engage further planning on the basis of their recently acquired concepts.

Continuation

Once the first cycle is over, students are back the Ask step and they can choose between two options:

Ask: a new cycle starts, fed by the new questions or reformulations of earlier ones. The teacher can create groups to stimulate discussions and interest.
Answer: the activity is ending. The teacher has to finish it by broadening: The initial questions with their responses, the reformulated ones, new ones that appeared during the activity. Making a synthesis is always a better solution, even if this step is not the purpose of an entire cycle.

Rainbow Scenario : the teacher sets students free to repeat their experiments or to try different things. Some students try to replicate what their friends have done, others do the same things with or without variants. A new cycle begins.

The advantage of this model is that it can be applied with lots of student types and lots of matters. Moreover, the teacher can design the scenario by focusing on a part of the cycle or another. They can use one or more cycles. Most often, a single cycle (formal or not) is not enough and because of that, this model is often drawn in a spiral shape.

Examples cases

Cyber 4OS Wiki de l'IBL en cours Lombard, F. (2007). Empowering next generation learners : Wiki supported Inquiry Based Learning ? (Paper) presented at the European practise based and practitioner conference on learning and instruction Maastricht 14-16 November 2007.
P. S. Blackawton et al. [Blackawton bees, December 22, 2010, doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2010.1056.
- See also: 8-Year-Olds Publish Scientific Bee Study.

Links

inquiry page
Computer Supported Inquiry Learning Kaleidoscope and EARLI Special Interest Group (SIG)

What Is Enquiry? - Habits of Mind and Metacognition

Another model of enquiry based learning combines the sixteen habits of mind (Costa and Kallick, 2000) and metacognitive skills and knowledge. Habits of Mind (Costa and Kallick, 2000) are persisting, thinking and communicating with clarity and precision, managing impulsivity, gathering data through all senses, listening with understanding and empathy, creating, imagining, innovating ,thinking flexibly, responding with wonderment and awe, thinking about thinking (metacognition), taking responsible risks, striving for accuracy, finding humour, questioning and posing problems, thinking interdependently, applying past knowledge to new situations, remaining open to continuous learning.

Metacognitiveskills and knowledge include; knowledge of self, knowledge of disposition, knowledge of strategies and tools, knowledge of problems and outcomes, and the skills of planning, monitoring and refining.

The enquiry model includes a ‘cycle’ of learning from an initiation stage where pupils are given a stimulus to be developed through questioning. Pupils then refine questions so that they have one main focus they wish to investigate. Subsequent stages involve planning, monitoring, refining, evaluating and presenting.

The enquiry model of learning is also supported by a number of, for example 8Qs, diamond ranking, inference square, odd one out, target board, and mapping.

The framework for enquiry is based on a model of formative self- by the pupils against metacognitive skills and knowledge using the habits of mind (Costa and Kallick, 2000) as a language for learning. Indeed, the aim is that by developing pupils’ awareness of and proficiency in these skills, they will ‘engage in the excitement of learning’ (DfES, 2005) and become better at it. ^{(Adapted from Enquiry Skills in a Virtual World, section WhatIsEnquiry).}

A different model of enquiry-based learning encourages students to use exploration, reflection and techniques, sharing of ideas, and high quality. The role of the teacher during the process is to act as a guide who challenges the students to think beyond their current processes by asking divergent questions. The model drew on research into enquiry-based learning that shows that often students experience difficulties in formulating appropriate questions which focus on the intended content. In this context the teacher needs to help them by drawing their attention to the experimental data and facts relevant to their enquiry and by generally facilitating the discussion. ^{(Adapted from The impact of enquiry-based science teaching on students' attitudes and achievement, section WhatIsEnquiry).}

What characterises higher-order scientific enquiry skills?

When engaging higher-order scientific enquiry skills learners take responsibility for their own learning and, where appropriate, demonstrate a range of the following

Plan

recognise that science is based on evidenced theories rather than facts
justify the methods and strategies that are going to be used in the enquiry
use concepts such as reliability, accuracy of measuring, validity of data/information when justifying a planned method
make multiple links between what is already known and/or independent research in order to plan
take account of any possible problems with their plan in order to refine it
justify their predictions, which can be quantitative, by using abstract scientific ideas, including linking models, theories and systems
determine success criteria in complex, abstract tasks

Develop

communicate effectively, choosing an appropriate medium, selecting only relevant points of interest and taking full account of the audience
measure systematically with accuracy
justify any amendments they make to their methodology understand the purposes of, and utilise, a wide range of learning/thinking strategies
use calculations to demonstrate or explore findings, and in doing so confidently and accurately rearrange equations
analyse and evaluate findings, looking to see if they present any further issues or modifications to the process they have used
apply the conventions of reliability and validity to their findings explore any uncertainties or anomalies using scientific reasoning evaluate findings in terms of levels of bias, reliability and validity
critically evaluate findings in terms of their prior scientific knowledge and understanding
apply abstract, linked scientific knowledge in a way that demonstrates understanding

Reflect

evaluate success criteria in complex, abstract tasks
link the learning to abstract ideas in order to make further predictions
evaluate the learning/thinking strategies used
refine learning/thinking strategies for further use
develop alternative learning/thinking strategies
critically reflect on their learning and develop their own next steps. ^{(Adapted from Developing Higher Order Scientific Enquiry Skills, section WhatIsEnquiry).}

What are the features of quality enquiries?

Learner-centred learning

In order to set appropriate enquiries, it is important to know learners' prior skills, knowledge and understanding. Knowing where learners are in a continuum will enable teachers and learners to better negotiate where learners need to go next and how best to get there; high quality assessment is key to this.

Classroom management Learners work best when they can share ideas and articulate their thoughts. Establishing effective collaboration in the classroom is key to successful learning. Through working in random pairs and small group work, learners learn from each other, raising their expectations and achievements. Teachers are able to listen in to conversations, and ask leading questions as in the enquiry 'What's the best way to minimise global warming?', in order to ascertain progress or otherwise. Learners need to agree on, and be frequently reminded of, the basic rules for interaction. They also need to feel that the classroom is a safe and reflective environment in which to take risks with their ideas. ^{(Adapted from Developing Higher Order Scientific Enquiry Skills, section WhatIsGoodEnquiry).}

Inquiry and mathematics teaching

Ideas of how to solve particular types of mathematical problems, e.g. involving fractions or negative numbers, are built up through bringing together experiences of tackling a range of related problems. In some cases, a conceptual step may also force to deconstruct, then to reconstruct a new and more encompassing idea. Such progression of ideas is only understood if they make sense to the learner because they are products of their own thinking. This view of learning argues for students to have experiences which enable them to work out for themselves how to make sense of different aspects of the world. First-hand experiences are important, particularly for younger children, but all learners need to develop the skills used in testing ideas – questioning, predicting, observing, interpreting, communicating and reflecting.

As is the case in natural science, inquiry-based mathematics education (IBME) refers to an education which does not present mathematics to pupils and students as a ready-built structure to appropriate. Rather it offers them the opportunity to experience

how mathematical knowledge is developed through personal and collective attempts at answering questions emerging in a diversity of fields, from observation of nature as well as the mathematics field itself,
how mathematical concepts and structures can emerge from the organization of the resulting constructions, and then be exploited for answering new and challenging problems.

It is expected that the inquiry-based approach will improve students’ mathematical understanding which will result in their mathematical knowledge becoming more robust and functional in a diversity of contexts beyond that of the usual school tasks. It will help students develop mathematical and scientific curiosity and creativity as well as their potential for critical reflection, reasoning and analysis, and their autonomy as learners. It will also help them develop a more accurate vision of mathematics as a human enterprise, consider mathematics as a fundamental component of our cultural heritage, and appreciate the crucial role it plays in the development of our societies.

If it is to be more than a slogan, IBME requires the development of appropriate educational strategies. These strategies must acknowledge the experimental dimension of mathematics and the new opportunities that digital technologies offer for supporting it. The history of mathematics shows that such an experimental dimension is not new, but in the last decades technological evolution has dramatically changed its means, economy, and also made it more visible and shared by the mathematical community. Compared with experimental practices in natural sciences, one must however be aware that the terrain of experience for mathematics learning is not limited to what is usually called the “real world”.

As they become familiar, mathematical objects also become the terrain for mathematics experimentation. Numbers, for instance, have been used for centuries and are still an incredible context for mathematics experiments, and the same can be said of geometrical forms. Patterns play a great role in mathematics, whether they are suggested by the natural world or fully imagined by the mathematician’s mind. Playing with patterns is a stimulating mathematical activity in the context of inquiry, even for elementary school children. Digital technologies also offer new and powerful tools for supporting investigation and experimentation in these mathematical domains.

IBME must, therefore, not just rely on situations and questions arising from real world phenomena, even if the consideration of these is of course very important, but use the diversity of contexts which can nurture investigative practices in mathematics.

Mathematics has a cumulative dimension to a greater extent than the natural sciences. Mathematical tools developed for solving particular problems need to build on each other to become methods and techniques which can be productively used for solving classes of problems, eventually leading to new mathematical ideas and even theories, and new fields of applications. Moreover, connections between domains play a fundamental role in the development of mathematics. Thus it is important in implementing IBME that students do not deal only with isolated problems, however challenging they may be, since this may not enable them to develop the over-arching (or more generally applicable) mathematical concepts.

Selecting appropriate questions and tasks for promoting IBME thus requires the consideration of their potential according to a diversity of criteria, and the building of a coherent organization and progression among these, having in mind the characteristics of mathematics as a scientific discipline and the ambition of such education of emphasizing the interaction between mathematics and other scientific disciplines, between mathematics and the real world.

A further crucial point is that, even when they emerge from real world situations, mathematical ideas are not directly accessible to our physical senses, and are thus worked out through a rich diversity of semiotic systems: standard systems of representation such as graphs, tables, figures, symbolic systems, computer representations, etc., but also gestures and discourse in ordinary language. IBME must be sensitive to this semiotic dimension of mathematical learning and to the progressive development of associated competences, without forgetting the evolution in semiotic potential and needs resulting from technological advances.

Modern technological tools have an impact on inquiry-based education through the immediate access given to a huge diversity of information, whatever the topic. This situation means that the “milieux” with which students can interact in investigative practices are potentially much richer than those usually used for developing investigative practices in mathematics. However, the necessity of selection and the critical use of such information create new demands that iBMe must take into account. ^{(Adapted from Fibonacci Project, section Reference).}

Inquiry and Science Teaching

The process of inquiry begins by trying to make sense of a phenomenon, or answer a question, about why something behaves in a certain way or takes the form it does. Initial exploration reveals features that recall previous ideas leading to possible explanations There might be several ideas from previous experience that could be relevant and through discussion one of these is chosen as giving the possible explanation or hypothesis to be tried. The test of the hypothesis is whether there is evidence to support a prediction based on it, for only if ideas have predictive power are they valid. To test the prediction new data about the phenomenon or problem are gathered, then analysed and the outcome used as evidence to compare with the predicted result. This is the ‘prediction –> plan and conduct investigation –> interpret data’ sequence in Figure 1. More than one prediction and test is desirable and so this sequence may be repeated several times.

From these results a tentative conclusion can be drawn about the initial idea. If it gives a good explanation then the existing ideas is not only confirmed, but becomes more powerful – ‘bigger’ –because it then explains a wider range of phenomena. Even if it doesn’t ‘work’ and an alternative idea has to be tried (one of the alternative ideas in Figure 1), the experience has helped to refine the idea, so knowing that the existing idea does not fit is also useful. This is the process of building understanding through collecting evidence to test possible explanations and the ideas behind them in a scientific manner, which we describe as learning through scientific inquiry.

^{(Adapted from Fibonacci Project, section Reference).}

The use of ICT to support Inquiry

Information and communication technologies provide today powerful tools for supporting inquiry-based education in mathematics and science. These tools are quite diverse

specific educational interfaces developed for supporting the collection and analysis of experimental data in a diversity of scientific domains;
microworlds attached to specific scientific or mathematical domains, as are in mathematics the various software tools for algebra, calculus and geometry;
simulation tools such as Net-Logo which make possible the exploration the behavior of complex systems, and the identification of regularities often not easily accessible through pure analytic work;
more general tools such as spreadsheets, statistic software, tools for numeric and symbolic computations, for graphical representations, not necessarily designed for education but converted then into educational tools.

Most of these ICT tools, implemented in hand–held devices or computers, have been present in the educational area for two decades at least. Their potential for supporting experimental practices and inquiry-based learning in science and mathematics has been investigated by educational researchers and attested in experimental settings. However, their influence at large on mathematics and science education has remained quite limited. But the situation is getting better as EU projects (e.g. Intergeo and InnoMathEd) and national projects (e.g. in the Netherlands and Germany) show. In the last decade, Internet technology has substantially moved this educational landscape:

making many of these technologies accessible online, and leading to new forms of educational objects, such as so-called applets (small interactive software components that can be accessed through an Internet browser);
giving easy access to a huge amount of information, whatever be the question at stake, and to professional data bases;
leading to an exponential increase in the number of resources produced both for students and teachers, by individuals, collectives or institutions, and changing the usual patterns of production and dissemination;
supporting the development of collaborative practices both on the side of students and teachers, and the development of networks.

Dynamic worksheets which are more and more used for supporting inquiry-based learning in mathematics and science illustrate this move. Following the idea of a traditional worksheet, a dynamic worksheet is a document written in HTML that includes applets to be viewed at the computer screen. This technical basis enables the integration of texts, graphics and dynamic configurations. The learning environment can productively combine experiments on the computer screen with more traditional paper and pen work when the students have to put down notes and sketches in their study journals. The potential offered by ICT for supporting inquiry-based practices in mathematics and science education, for moving from local to global influences and successes, is thus substantially transformed; in Fibonacci, we use ICT to improve inquiry-based education. This being said, we would like to stress some important points. ICT offers evident potential for supporting inquiry-based learning in mathematics and science. This does not mean that ICT tools must be given a predominant role.

Experimental work can and must also develop with more classical objects and technologies. Virtual experiments should not replace real experiments. These are especially important for approaching new fields, new domains of experience. For instance, an adequate development of spatial and geometrical knowledge with young students cannot just be achieved by using a Dynamic Geometry Software (DGS), whatever is the quality of this use. It also requires working with objects and models in different spaces, not just in the micro-space of the sheet of paper or the computer screen.

ICT offers evident potential but actualizing this potential requires appropriate tasks and guidance of the teacher. As shown by research developed in that area, real creativity must be developed in terms of tasks, and not just adaptation to the ICT environment of tasks which have proved to be effective in more standard environments. This makes the collective elaboration and exchange of resources in Fibonacci especially important. The same can be said regarding teachers’ practices. Benefiting from the learning potential of ICT technology requires from the teachers new forms of orchestration and guidance whose requirements have been underestimated until recently.

In summary, ICT creates today a new ecology for inquiry-based education in mathematics and science education, that the Fibonacci project must take into consideration, without underestimating what a productive use of ICT requires in terms of design and teacher expertise. ^{(Adapted from Fibonacci Project, section Reference).}

If you're interested in using ICT to support the full Inquiry process, you should consider exploring the www.nquire.org.uk, discussed in the context of use here, and another OU tool - Enquiry Blogger.

You might also like to look at this EARLI page which lists software packages for teaching (go to 'edit'->'find' on your menu bar, and search for 'inquiry' to find relevant software.

Inquiry for Professional Development

The DfE links to an Australian report 'Towards a Culture of Inquiry' which provides a useful summary of how staff might think about their Professional Development in terms of inquiry.

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Teacher Education Resources

What is involved in 'doing a science investigation'? And what is there to assess?

Lesson idea. This resource describes the process of doing a science investigation. What types of science practical work are there? How might we measure the level of achievement for different science investigation skills?

Resource details
Title	Primary Science Investigation
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	You should be able to: Identify what is involved in carrying out an investigation (e.g. planning and gathering evidence) Identify different types of science practical work (classifying, seeking patterns and testing fairly) Identify different goals (e.g. predicting) and levels of achievement (e.g. 0-5) in practical work
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Progression & questioning techniques in primary science projects
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	Read the document on the wiki: Primary Science investigation/Document Or download the document here: File:Primary Science Investigation.doc
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources and original ideas contributed by Paul Warwick, at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.
License

Carrying out an investigation

Before you start practical work:

1) Give the investigation a title

Decide exactly what it is that the children want to find out. Use this to give the investigation a title. For example, as part topic of a topic on “Jack and the Beanstalk’, children might decide to find out what a bean seed needs to grow.

2) Encourage predictions

Ask the children what they think is going to happen. Encourage them to say why they think this is going to happen, as a way of helping children to clarify their ideas, and of gathering assessment information.

3) Think about making the test fair

Any factor which can be altered in a test is called a variable. For example, some of the variables in a test to find the slowest falling parachute would be:

the material the parachute is made of-the size of the parachute
the shape of the parachute-the length of the parachute strings
the weight on the end of the strings-the height from which the parachute is dropped
the child dropping the parachute

Gathering evidence

1) Encourage children to use their senses

This is one of the most fundamental skills to be encouraged at every possible opportunity. Try to encourage children to use all their senses, e.g. when looking at materials try finding out what sort of sounds they can make.

Safety note: It is important that children always check with you before smelling or tasting anything.

2) Discuss observations

Encourage children to describe observations to each other. This will help them to build a broad working scientific vocabulary. Reporting back to others will also help them to organise their thoughts.

It can be helpful to refer to the senses in questioning:

What did you notice with your ears?What did it feel like?

3) Measuring

Measuring can be done using both standard and non-standard units. Try and give children regular opportunities to choose their own measuring apparatus so that they can learn to select the most appropriate terms.

Recording evidence

Before recording, ensure that the children had plenty of opportunity to talk about what they have done.

Use a range of recording styles – charts, drawing, painting, tape recording.

The merits of each should be discussed so that children can make sensible judgements about which to use

Looking at the evidence

At the end of an investigation, it is useful to compare the outcomes of it with the predictions made at the beginning by the children and discuss any differences

Try and do this in a positive way, perhaps referring to ‘surprises’. Avoid ‘right or wrong answer’ attitudes. Sometimes it helps to make unlikely predictions yourself!

Encourage the children to describe what they have done to develop sequencing skills

What do the children think that they have learned? (refer back to the learning objective)

The skills of science and how they relate to………………………………………………..activity

Brief description of the activity……………………………………………………………………..

……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Scientific ideas……………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Skills	Questions and things children might do
Observing
Comparing & classifying
Predicting
Estimating & measuring
Testing
Communicating
Drawing conclusions

Different Types of Practical Work in Science

Classifying & Identifying	Classifying is a process of arranging a large range of objects or events into manageable sets. Identifying is a process of recognising objects and events as members of particular sets and allocating names to them	-which things float -what is that tree?
Pattern seeking	These investigations involve observing and recording natural phenomena and carrying out surveys and then seeking patterns in the findings.	-Do dandelions in the shade have longer leaves that those in the light? -Do people with longer legs jump higher
Exploring	Pupils make a series of observations of a natural phenomenon occurring over time.	-How does frog spawn develop over time? -What happens when different liquids are added together?
Investigation Models	These are investigations that explore intellectual models and are more likely to be found in Key stage 3 & 4	-Will copper increase or decrease in mass during combustion?
Making things or developing systems	These are investigations are usually technological in nature but have a high scientific content.	-Can you find a way to design a pressure pad switch for a burglar alarm? How could you make a weighing machine out of elastic bands?
Fair testing	These are concerned with exploring relations between variables or factors. It is described in the Key stage 2 POS as “changing one factor and observing and measuring the effect while keeping other factors the same”.	-What affects the rate at which sugar dissolves? -Which paper towel soaks up most water?

Observing

One step: children are able to…

Two steps: children are able to…

Three steps: children are able to…

-say something about the object when asked about it

-touch and explore an object

-when given an object, find another one like it

-observe one feature “the ice is cold”, “the sand is yellow”

-say if something changed when asked about it

-make sets using a very general category, e.g. candles, frogs, cars, etc.

-observe more than one feature “the ice is cold and wet”

-observe a change “the sand goes a different colour”

-sort a general set according to size, e.g. arrange candles in size order (not always 100 correctly)

Predicting

One step: children are able to…	Two steps: children are able to…	Three steps: children are able to…
“…make a simple statement e.g. when looking for woodlice they say “they are outside”	-make a general statement e.g. when looking for woodlice they say “they might be in the grass”	-refer to something they have already encountered, e.g. when looking for woodlice they say “I’ve found some under stones at home – let’s look there”

Problem-solving

One step: children are able to…	Two steps: children are able to…	Three steps: children are able to…
-play with and explore the materials they have been given, e.g. feels and digs in the wet and dry sand, to address a problem identified by an adult	-make a suggestion about what to do, e.g. “Let’s mix sand and water and see”; “Can we try to make the water frothy”	-make a suggestion about what to change, e.g. “Let’s try more water”, “Why don’t we put some washing-up liquid in?”

Decision-making

One step: children are able to…	Two steps: children are able to…	Three steps: children are able to…
-begin to show an awareness of treating things in the same way, e.g. explore seeds by feeling them all, looking at them all with a magnifying glass, smelling them all and rolling them all along the ground	-show an awareness of treating things in the same way, e.g. when growing seeds they say “I’ll put them all in soil”	-start to show an awareness of amounts to use, e.g. when growing seeds they say “how much soil do we need?”

Communication

One step: children are able to…

Two steps: children are able to…

Three steps: children are able to…

-show what they did-use non-verbal communication, e.g. nod or shake head when the teacher questions what they did”

-show where they found an object or minibeast-show what they did-use the objects to record with, e.g. with help make a pile of objects which sand can go through

-describe or show simply what they did-consider, with help, if their simple statement was correct

-talk about what they did, e.g. when playing with dough they will say “I’m hitting this”-ask one or two questions, e.g. most questions begin with “why”

-gather similar things together or cut up similar things from catalogue, e.g. make a leaf collection-use the objects to record with, e.g. make a pile of objects sand can get through and pile that it can’t go through

-describe simply what they did “I put milk on the cornflakes”-consider, with help, if their general statement was correct, e.g. “You thought woodlice would in the grass, were they?”

-talk about what they observe, e.g. when playing with dough they will say “I’m can make it long and smooth like a snake”-ask an increased range of questions, e.g. not all questions begin with “why”

-display their collections, e.g. stick leaves onto a tree outline in groups of size and colour-draw an object and stick onto a chart drawn by the teacher, e.g. pictures of things which sand can’t go through

-describe simply what happened, e.g. “The cornflakes went soft”- consider, with help, if their reference to something already encountered was correct, e.g. “You thought woodlice would be under stones, were they?”

Practical Classroom Activities

TES Teaching Resource of the Year - 2011

<<< >>>

This resource may not be final.

Aiming to win 'A level' recruits with a trip to the strange world of relativity and quantum mechanics

Lesson idea. A presentation about the frontiers of human understanding and the truly strange world proposed by relativity and quantum mechanics. Incidentally, 88 mph is the speed at which the 'Delorean' car is able to travel through time in 'Back to the Future'. This is lesson 5 of 6 in the Astronomy Master Class.

No teaching approach - ^(edit)

Resource details
Title	88 Miles per Hour
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Evaluating the limits put on time travel by Einstein's general relativity. Understanding that time is relative and that each of us will measure it slightly differently. Appreciating that relativity and quantum mechanics do not fully fit together and this merely means that our models are not perfect.
Format / structure	A 34 minute narrated screen cast which is part of the full, six hour 'Astronomy Master Class'. Also supplied as a Prezi and a Acrobat file should you wish to do the presentation yourself.
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Astronomy Masterclass It's full of stars From Earth to Moon Celestial Wanderers Recreating the Big Bang
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	Teacher's Notes Narrated video - 34 mins: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXLUTm-rXnA&feature=relmfu Astronomy Masterclass - Prezi Slide presentation: http://prezi.com/2hk390sfkqjh/the-astronomy-masterclass/ Acrobat PDF document - for this session 5, use pages 141-199 of Astronomy masterclass.pdf: https://www.box.com/shared/aqnk3lvr09 (241Mb) TES Resources link - http://www.tes.co.uk/teaching-resource/The-Astronomy-Masterclass-6070303/ This also includes links to other YouTube videos.
Acknowledgement
License

Find different ways to classify living things

Lesson idea. This lesson ideas asks students to sort images of living things into groups. They may do this on the computer using photo album software to organise the images, add labels or descriptions if appropriate. When that is done, students can think of other groups or categories to sort living things. The idea can also work as a lesson starter where you may want to use it to discuss points about classification in science.

Resource details
Title	Classifying and organising living things using images
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	To have experience and develop confidence with the different ways in which living things can be classified into groups. To develop knowledge of and use characteristics of living things to classify them.
Format / structure	An activity outline and photo collection.
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed	Access to computers or tablet will allow pupils to organise the images supplied using photo organization/slideshow software (such as Picasa).
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Organising images for a narrative OER4Schools/Photo story For some lesson video clips, of a Zambian lesson on classifying vertebrates, see here.
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	An activity outline The activity outline includes links to photographs of living things in one zip file, see activity outline for more information. The activity outline also mentions a further task which is to label or annotate the astronomy images supplied. The images are also available individually (on this wiki), and you can preview the images here: preview for images of living things or view them as a browser-based slideshow, download a zip file File:Images of living things slideshow.zip for local use, or preview astronomy images You can also download an open office slideshow of images of living things here: File:Living things slideshow.odp
Acknowledgement
License

Subject	Science
Activity Name	Classifying and organising living things using images
Learning Objectives	To have experience of and develop confidence with the different ways in which living things can be classified into groups To develop knowledge of and use some of the characteristics of living things and ways to classify and organise them.
Outline of activity	Using photo organizer software, students place the images provided into various groups or categories. They may also add labels and descriptions where appropriate.
Technology requirements and skills	Computer with slideshow or photo organisation software installed, such as 'Picasa'. Set of photographs such as those contained in this file: [ Images%2Bof%2BLiving%2BThings.zip] ^(info). Other images might be used as available.
Equipment requirements	This activity is designed to be computer based. If there is only one computer or set of images. provide the rest of the class with images of animals to sort. Otherwise they might draw pictures (see supplementary activity below) so that they can engage with a similar activity. Bank of sample images (above, under CC licence from http://www.4freephotos.com/44557d3930b7f3ebf705a9d04dcd5dcb-lightbox.html) Extension to Astronomy images: Second activity is more an annotation or show and tell one with a set of astronomy images that studenst could annotate, label (with tablet) or organise Astro: http://www.4freephotos.com/1e381a3704dcf5152cd7878e286fdf45-lightbox.html Astronomy Images.zip ^(info)
Possible extension or supplementary activities	Using digital cameras or those included in some laptops, students take their own photographs Students could be encouraged to draw an animal or plant of their choice on a mini whiteboard and then arrange themselves or their images into various groups. Using a wiki reader or a digital encyclopaedia, students can search for supplementary information about the animals and plants or search for other appropriate examples Students may well use other features of the software to organise the images in alternative ways.
Suggestions of what ‘successful’ student understanding or work might look like	Students will have created slideshows or photo albums that organise/classify living things into groups. This may vary from a simple animal/plant to more complex ones and they will have used specific vocabulary. Students will have demonstrated how images of some groups of living things can be organised in different ways, depending upon what characteristics you choose.

A simple investigation into parachutes and air resistance

Lesson idea. A brief explanation of a simple investigation into parachutes and air resistance followed by some ideas for a possible investigation and a description of how to make a simple parachute.

Resource details
Title	Which material makes a good parachute?
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	To gain understanding of the nature of force and the way in which force acts on parachutes. To gather data and draw conclusions.
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	What floats and what sinks? The Elephant on the Bridge Building bridges from a piece of A4 paper What makes a good paper airplane? Forces in Static Situations Floors and Pillars
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	download the document here File:SC0043 Parachutes.doc or view it on the wiki Which material makes a good parachute/Lesson Document
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources and original ideas contributed by Paul Warwick, at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.
License

Make a parachute using a square of tissue paper. Cut four strings or lengths of wool, all of equal length. Tie or tape one to each scrunched up corner of the tissue square. Tie a card wheel to the loose ends of the strings to represent the parachutist (a Lego man would be even better!)

Which material makes a good parachute?

Parachute investigations are always popular and engaging if framed well. A key issue is the means by which data are to be gathered. The height from which parachutes must be dropped is considerable in order for the length of time it takes to drop to be easily measurable by primary pupils, even at KS2. Help must be enlisted from another adult as supervising 30 primary pupils when balanced at the top of the wall bars is difficult and dangerous. If the school has appropriate technology, a motion sensor could be set up to trigger the stopping of the timer as the parachute touches the floor. If not, a discussion must take place as to the accuracy of human timings. For upper KS2 it is suggested that one variable is defined as the independent variable, for example, the size of the parachute or the material from which it is made. This could follow on from the investigation outlined in the activity sheet.

The parachute is good for teaching about air resistance and the children can set about testing a few. They might use different fabrics, a paper plate, a balloon or a serviette. They might try them with or without a hole in the top. Timing the parachutes is not easy and you might reasonably ask if their tests have been fair and whether they could repeat their results and get the same answer. They can use a spreadsheet to record the time each parachute takes to fall. And they can sort the list and draw a bar graph to compare the parachutes. Are larger parachutes better? Is there a connection between the size of the parachute and the time it takes to fall? Does a hole in the top help?

	A	B	C
1	Parachute testing	Fall time
2	Balloon	6
3	Plate	13
4	Serviette	10
5	Nylon	5

Things to think about

Consider framing the investigation as an open-ended enquiry eg What criteria determine the ‘best parachute’?
Parachutes are wonderful activity for exploring variables. Make a list of all the variables you could change.
Choose one variable to explore. How could less able/more able children record and present their findings?

Got a new motor? Talk about your investigation like a scientist

Lesson idea. This resource is a teacher's commentary on a discussion around the results of an investigation which involves comparing toy cars rolling down a ramp. This might be used as a stand-alone lesson or be expanded to a longer topic. With differentiation, it can be used with any primary age. At the foundation stage, teachers might focus on developing the language of comparison while discussing shared results. At the top of Key Stage 2, teachers might expect their pupils to develop a fully written argument and refer to their initial hypotheses, data and also the possibility of unreliable data due to their control of variables.

Resource details
Title	Persuasive argument and evidence-based conclusions about the best car
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Students should be able to: carry out a whole investigation, use evidence to support conclusions.
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information	For further booklets, please check The National Centre for Initial Teacher Training in Primary School Science at http://www.le.ac.uk/se/centres/sci/SCIcentre.html
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	Persuasive argument: Best car/Document
Acknowledgement	This resource was adapted from resources and original ideas contributed by Paul Warwick, at the Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge.
License

Chapter 7 - Technology for Interactive Teadching: = ICT tools – what achieves your objectives? =

Think about what you want your students to get out of ICT.

Just a few years back, software tools were stored on your computer but today you can find similar tools online. The tools offer the added value of giving your work an audience, getting feedback, sharing and improving it. Somewhere in the process, you can imagine that learning does happen. There is surely a resource in this list that will help you achieve your objectives. Several will chime with some teachers and not others.

We've provided a little guidance on how you might use some tools, or tagged them with ideas on how they may work. ICT is often not about what the tool can do, but what you do with the tool. For example, Google Drive enables you to share files but you could get students using it to engage in shared real time research. It then becomes a sophisticated tool to collaborate with. Weigh up a focused use, besides a 'hope for the best' use. Don't weigh up quality with hardware and features. At times you might let students choose their own tools.

Of all the words we’ve available to describe these tools, you ought notice that some are entirely absent. The words are enjoyable, cool, innovative and new way to learn. The key words are to do with what achieves teaching objectives. So do experiment, and even return here to share a use that enhances what we aim to do.

Pedagogy and ICT - A Review of the Literature

The Pedagogy and ICT a Review of the Literature article (Loveless, 2009; published by BECTA) covers the relationship between pedagogy and ICT use. This review attempts to offer frameworks for thinking about the ‘What?’, ‘How?' and 'Why?’ questions of teaching with information and communications technologies (ICT), offering a range of tools to help us to understand our teaching in local and global contexts, to help us, as Freire urged, to ‘read the world’ of our practice (Freire and Macedo, 1987). It covers a range of approaches to pedagogy, relating these to ICT and some particular issues raised in the literature ^{(Adapted from Pedagogy and ICT a Review of the Literature, section Introduction).}

Teacher Education Resources

A resource for lecturers to introduce their PGCE students to effective use of ICT

Lesson idea. A 21 slide resource that is designed to be used by small groups of student teachers on laptops at the same time as it is presented.

Resource details
Title	Effective Use of ICT
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	By the end of the session you should be able to: plan how to integrate ICT into science lessons use a variety of ICT web based resources effectively in science teaching
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed	University VLE with presentation uploaded
Useful information
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Vital
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	File:How to use this resource.odt (or as wiki text Effective Use of ICT/Using this resource File:Effective Use of ICT in Science Education.ppt
Acknowledgement
License

DEFT

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A DEFT case study with Notre Dame High School, Sheffield

Lesson idea. The case study examines on barriers and enablers in the uptake of digital tools for teaching and learning, with an emphasis on issues involved in sharing resources and good practice between peers. It will explore pupils' views on using' Moodle' and their ideas of engaging with other forms of digital technologies. The particular technologies focussed on by this case study are: VLEs and tools embedded within VLEs and using OERs as a tool for sharing practice.

Resource details
Title	Exploring issues in uptake of digital literacy tools
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	To explore the success of digital literacy tools in the classroom
Format / structure	Case study
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed	VLE
Useful information	This case study was conducted by Notre Dame High School in Sheffield, in conjunction with Christine Bodin, Teacher of French and Spanish
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	One of the lesson ideas from the case study is available as a separate resource at Using a VLE in the Classroom
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	http://www.digitalfutures.org/index.php/case-studies/schools/school-case-study-8/
Acknowledgement
License

Practical Classroom Activities

DEFT

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Children using iPads to blog about Cardboard Sculptures

Lesson idea. This lesson idea involves the use of iPads and iPod Touches with a KS2 class, with the children taking on the role of 'digital reporters'. This series of lessons was linked to a whole school event called 'Camp Cardboard', run by artists from a group called Responsible Fishing (http://www.responsiblefishinguk.co.uk/) over the course of a full day. They provided a large amount of recycled cardboard boxes to the school hall and worked throughout the day with each year-group to build a cardboard camp, using the children's ideas to construct rooms, tunnels and even a cardboard garden.

The digital element of this project involved teams of children from the class visiting the hall, acting as reporters to record the events unfolding. They used the Instagram app to take and manipulate photos and to add filters. They also used the notes app to make notes on what they saw.

On return to the classroom the children used the same mobile devices to add posts to a blog about their day. This initially involved discussions about eSafety and the audience of the blog. The children produced a range of interesting and individual blog posts that incorporated their photos and text, using the Wordpress app to post their ideas.

Parents and members of the project team were asked to contribute comments to the blog and to interact with the children while they were blogging. The blog can be found at http://cardboardbds.wordpress.com

Children took a creative and positive approach to using the technology, working successfully with the apps they had been introduced to, finding their own way around problems that arose and using their initiative to explore alternative uses that supported their aims.

Resource details
Title	Digital Reporters at Camp Cardboard
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	To use technology to communicate an event to a wider audience
Format / structure
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed	iPads / iPod Touch
Useful information	The Instagram and Wordpress apps can be downloaded free from the Apple App store
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	Case Study: A schools involvement with Sheffield Childrens Festival project Camp Cardboard
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	This lesson idea comes from the DEFT case study A schools involvement with Sheffield Childrens Festival project Camp Cardboard. The whole case study is available for reading and downloading here: http://www.digitalfutures.org/index.php/case-studies/schools/school-case-study-5/
Acknowledgement
License

A compendium with numerous ideas for using sensors to teach science.

Lesson idea. A book of ideas showing the scope for using sensors to measure in science. Drawing on many sources, it catalogues the sensors available and suggests what they might be used for. There are not only classic and novel school experiments but also ideas to investigate, such as ‘which fabric keeps us warmest?’ Though this manual appeared at a time when teachers were asking ‘what do I use the technology for’, it also aimed to show how sensors can enhance science teaching. Some of the ideas from this book are collected on our page with data logging ideas.

Resource details
Title	Data Logging and Control
Topic
Teaching approach
Learning Objectives	Predicting the kind of graph their experiment will show. Evaluating their results and redo their work if needed - more so than in a traditional experiment. Analysing their graph data, such as compute areas or plot a differential of a change. Stating what a graph shows about a change. Saying how a graph tells them what is happening. Seeing ways to take their experiment further.
Format / structure	Online book - licensed to ORBIT
Subject
Age of students / grade
Table of contents
Additional Resources/material needed
Useful information	Book data: ISBN 095202571X 132pp spiral bound. First published in 1993, revised x 11 to 2004, £16.50, see Amazon: http://www.amazon.co.uk/Roger-Frost/e/B0034PHJ5M. Author: Roger Frost
Related ORBIT Wiki Resources	List of experiments in Data logging & Control
Other (e.g. time frame)
Files and resources to view and download	The resource is available in a number of formats: as a printable PDF - 134 pages as an editable Word document - 150 pages File:Data Logging and Control.doc Use to extract individual pages. Please note that this is a large file. as a web page available on this wiki http://orbit.educ.cam.ac.uk/resources/books/Data_Logging_and_Control/index.htm in Flash web format at http://rogerfrost.com/dcbook.html
Acknowledgement	This resource was created by Roger Frost, and is under the ORBIT's CC licence.
License

This resource was created by Roger Frost, and is under the ORBIT's CC licence.

Cooling curve

Two temperature sensors can collect some interesting information about cooling during a change of state. In this experiment the temperature of a water bath increases as a substance cools. But the unusual setup here will also show that, during the change of state, heat is lost from the substance even though its temperature remains constant.

Apparatus Beaker, test tube, water bath, insulation material for the beaker, stearic acid (or wax; benzophenone), test tube rack, interface, Temperature sensors (not First Sense types - they might be damaged).

Setting up Connect two temperature sensors to sockets 1 and 2 on the interface.

Place one temperature probe in a test tube half-filled with Stearic Acid. Warm the tube and probe in a water bath to melt the stearic acid.

Some systems recognise the sensors you attach automatically, in others you do this yourself. If the sensors are adjustable, set them on a 0-100 range.

Recording the data Remove the tube from the water bath. Place it in a small insulated beaker, partly filled with water. Record for 10 minutes. Stir the stearic acid continuously.

Using the results

How does the graph show you that the stearic acid is getting cooler?
What is happening to the water temperature as this occurs? Why is this?
What is happening to the stearic acid when the graph is flatter?
What happening to the water temperature as this occurs? Where does the water gain its heat from?

[ftn1-1] ttp://thinkingtogether.educ.cam.ac.uk/resources/5_examples_of_talk_in_groups.pdf

[ftn2-2] {http://thinkingtogether.educ.cam.ac.uk/resources/Are_these_useful_rules_for_discussion.pdf}

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Teaching approaches: WikiText

The ORBIT coursebook

An interactive resource bank on interactive teaching

Working with the Resources

How can ORBIT help develop Interactive Teaching, and benefit my students

Lessons for Learning

Teaching for learning

Task Effective teaching – effective learning 30 minutes

Process of Lesson Design

Factors Affecting Lesson Design

Selecting and Using Resources

Teaching, Learning and Professional Development

Taking the Whole School Approach

Developing effective approaches to CPD

Digital Video for Professional Development

Identifying Digital Video Clips of Good Pedagogic Practice

Why use digital video footage?

How to use digital video footage

Some guiding principles:

A little goes a long way

Introduction to OER, Creative Commons, and Open Government Licence

Defining OER

Why OER

Creative Commons and Open Government Licence

Adapting and Sharing our Resources

Copyright

How to Stay Within the Law

Unpicking copyright

Wikis

Table 2

What is effective assessment?

Assessment for learning

How might we use AfL

High Quality Questioning and Dialogue

Effective Group Work

Group Talk - a Method for Assessment?

Use of ICT

Whole Class Technologies

Automated feedback

Quizzes and Clickers

Collaboration

Collaborative tools for orchestrating dialogue

Assessment for Learning and Writing

Assessment for Learning and Reading

Inclusive Learning Design Handbook

Inclusive teaching in mathematics

Introduction

Pupils with English as an additional language (EAL)

Pupils with special educational needs (SEN)

Special educational needs/learning difficulties and disabilities

(SEN/LDD)

Pupils with disabilities

Pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties

Pupils with communication difficulties

Pupils who are working well below national expectations for their age group

Pupils who are very able at mathematics

Inclusion in science

Gifted and talented pupils

Supporting English as Additional Language (EAL) learners

Strategies to support EAL learners in science

Early-stage learners of English

More advanced learners of English

Pupils with special educational needs (SEN), learning difficulties and disabilities (LDD)

Communication and interaction

Cognition and learning

Behaviour, emotional and social development

Sensory or physical difficulties

Differentiation, Group Work and Assessment

Gifted and Talented Provision

Strategies for Differentiation

References

Introduction

Why Question?

A Common Classroom Sequence

Summary of research

Practical Advice

Typical Classroom Dialogue

Dialogic Talk